tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39974799958512378142024-03-14T09:32:14.208+00:00History of Medicine in Ireland BlogA blog run by members of the Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, University College Dublin highlighting research and events in the history of medicine and medical humanities in Ireland. UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comBlogger59125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-51570562612963927092022-08-15T18:00:00.004+01:002023-11-01T13:57:28.513+00:00Through a Glass Darkly: The Archive and the Imperfect Portrait of a Man<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><i><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In this blog post, Hannah Kempel, a student on
UCD's <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240">MA
in History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a>, reflects on her personal
responses to archival material relating to Dr Neil John Blayney (1874-1919) donated
to the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/">Royal College of
Physicians of Ireland's Heritage Centre</a>.</span></i></p>
<br />There’s a certain intimacy to archival documents, one that I’m not sure that I fully grasped before taking up this project. I had never really interacted with archival documents as part of a collection before. What little experience I had was in individual documents, either provided to me by professors or in database searches. The experience of interacting with a single archival collection is markedly different: deeper, more intimate, and more emotional.<div><br />We don’t always consider the emotional element of interacting with archives, but that has been my strongest response to this collection. Emotion in historical practice is controversial but useful. While some academics may believe it to be unnecessary or improper for historians, it can help us to move past our gut reactions and preconceived notions and draw out new understandings.[1] Beyond its use to the historian, empathy can also provide a way for us to engage more ethically with our sources.[2] We can treat our subjects as people with their own voices, not objects.[3]<br /><br />This particular collection, the Neil John Blayney Collection at the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI) Heritage Centre archives, only concerns one man: the eponymous Neil John Blayney. Far from being the calm and objective historian, I had many different feelings while sifting through Blayney’s documents: humour, annoyance, admiration. I was quite surprised by the depth of what I felt. My strong emotional response inspired me to dig deeper into Blayney’s experiences and motivations and provided me with a richer and wider experience.</div><div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><br /></span></b></div><h3 style="text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Background</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></h3><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZK736x_vEndBTCcywMIFmetjXV39K7bUiLZGVwxiThSiQN3dR6QR-n54g9QhUElB-FTH5bvNrKjFOdQnVWAnyZWRd17j282R1UY2NdksZIw7e1iy2AkaVu_XQsCkE8bv6Kj4wdIXhpZbyT4Sk2_r3WYNfKl3qGNEJBTUAhHcYL1LrcTSfrL0J-rtvWnLI/s351/Figure%201.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="351" data-original-width="228" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZK736x_vEndBTCcywMIFmetjXV39K7bUiLZGVwxiThSiQN3dR6QR-n54g9QhUElB-FTH5bvNrKjFOdQnVWAnyZWRd17j282R1UY2NdksZIw7e1iy2AkaVu_XQsCkE8bv6Kj4wdIXhpZbyT4Sk2_r3WYNfKl3qGNEJBTUAhHcYL1LrcTSfrL0J-rtvWnLI/w260-h400/Figure%201.png" width="260" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">Dr Blayney, date unknown. Used <br />with permission from the RCPI Heritage Centre.</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p>Dr Neil John Blayney was born in 1874 to a merchant family, the sixth of seven children.[4] He studied Greek, Latin, and English at the Royal University of Ireland, medicine at the Catholic University, and began practising as a doctor in 1897.[5] He would serve in a variety of roles as a surgeon during his life: from ship’s surgeon on a cargo and passenger ship [6] to resident surgeon at the Queen’s County Infirmary [7] to Medical Officer to the Maryborough Barracks during the First World War.[8] He married Eily Meehan in 1916 and had a daughter named Mary ten months later.[9] His son Andrew was born in 1918.[10] Blayney died in 1919.[11]<br /><br />These are the barest of facts of Blayney’s life. They read more as a resumé than a biography and tell you little to nothing about what kind of man Blayney actually was. There is so much more to Blayney’s life, as there is for any person’s life, than the bare facts. Neil J. Brennan, Blayney’s grandson, took Blayney’s documents and pulled a much more colourful portrait of the man in his book Opening Dusty Boxes: The Life of a County Surgeon in Edwardian Ireland. His Blayney is an individualist who involved himself in politics and enjoyed playing football. He learned about these aspects and more from photographs, news articles, letters, and the inferences that he could make from what documents survived.[12]</div><div><br /><h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Constructing Dr Blayney</span></b></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">How do you pull the person from the papers? There are almost one hundred items of Blayney’s in the Neil John Blayney Collection at the RCPI Heritage Centre. This collection consists of five categories of documents: those relating to his medical career, his personal life, his service in the First World War, medical records, and supplementary material collected by Neil J. Brennan.[13] At first glance this may seem rather comprehensive, but can one hundred items really encapsulate a person’s life? Twenty-six of those items are professional references.[14] Over a quarter of Blayney’s documents are written about him in a very specific professional context. What does that have to say, if anything, about who Blayney was? <br /><br />In the book An Eye for Eternity Mark McKenna tells the story of Manning Clark, a famous Australian historian, and his wife Dymphna. Beyond telling the story of an influential man and his oft-overlooked wife, McKenna also digs deep into Clark’s self-conscious shaping of his own legacy through meticulous editing and choosing of his own documents. The sheer amount of records and the meticulous detail with which he documented and deliberately chose them indicate a great deal of effort was involved in Clark’s creation of his archival legacy.[15]<br /><br />The question of what makes it into an archive and what does not can be quite fascinating. This can be a matter of policy, of concrete guidelines that lead to documents’ inclusion or exclusion from archives. For example, the RCPI Heritage Centre has a specific collection policy that is used to determine whether or not it will accept a donation, restricting its content to materials related to the history of medicine in Ireland.[16] The National Archives of Ireland goes one step further. Its policy is based on the National Archives Act of 1986.[17] What can or cannot be included in that archive is a matter of law. <br /><br />Personal collections are somewhat different. An archive may choose to acquire them or not, but their creation is much more intimate and subjective than a collection created due to policy or law. Personal collections reflect the decisions and motivations of their creators. Manning Clark created his archival collection through a great deal of effort and time. He involved his family, especially his wife, in its creation.[18] Mark McKenna sees this management, which is interwoven into Clark’s biography, as Clark’s way of creating a second life for himself.[19]</p><h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Self-management and
Self-reflection</span></b></h3><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">The case of Manning Clark is in many ways an extreme example of managing one’s legacy. Clark was a historian who made his life’s work out of digging through papers in archives. He would have had a much wider understanding of the ways that personal documents can change and shape a legacy than Neil John Blayney, a county surgeon, might have had. This doesn’t mean that Blayney did not have a hand in creating his own archival collection. <br /><br />Blayney’s collection has had a very different life than that of Manning Clark’s. By the time Clark created his collection and sent his documents to the Australian National Archive he was already a celebrity in Australia. He seems to have very explicitly desired to be written about in the future. He even left notes to future biographers in his diary.[20] Clark was desperate to be remembered. The Blayney collection’s path has been more circuitous. It was kept in the Blayney family’s possession, not as an archival collection used for research but as a set of “very dusty boxes” passed down to Dr Neil J. Brennan who donated it to the RCPI Heritage Centre.[21]<br /><br />It doesn’t seem that Blayney ever planned for his documents to form a legacy for himself- at least not in the way Clark envisioned. Given that he died of a stroke at the age of 44 he likely didn’t foresee the end of his life any time soon, not like Clark’s anticipation in his old age.[22] This is not a collection borne out of a lifetime of study and management. We can then look at Blayney’s papers as a reflection of the documents he wanted to keep for himself, not for posterity. <br /><br />What, then, did Blayney choose to keep for himself? Personal correspondence, handwritten notes, class notes, bills, letters of reference. Perfectly ordinary documents, the kind that anyone might have, that nevertheless reveal a life. Blayney’s papers reveal some of the twists and turns of his life and grant an insight into the practicalities of life as a doctor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In diving into these documents one can reveal not just an example of the life of a middle-class county surgeon but the life of Neil John Blayney. </p><h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">“Regarding Our Last
Correspondence”<o:p> </o:p></span></b></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1fz9O0shn-WvwtSxCdFpFAmUsf1LyteuQAuteHpJM7KhFv3ZZ0LZ1IucKNcLRydX9BIebD_JxS3QQuVl29y8wqCl2nC2zc6UWFrAQCRFksCx66_9TK2GWGmc_s8jJVQPXtZwzYUbA3uJoJ8lQrHfXM5BFjH-UgV9DkFc2apL388HYXxbZ01K34C_L9wff/s428/Figure%202.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="321" data-original-width="428" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1fz9O0shn-WvwtSxCdFpFAmUsf1LyteuQAuteHpJM7KhFv3ZZ0LZ1IucKNcLRydX9BIebD_JxS3QQuVl29y8wqCl2nC2zc6UWFrAQCRFksCx66_9TK2GWGmc_s8jJVQPXtZwzYUbA3uJoJ8lQrHfXM5BFjH-UgV9DkFc2apL388HYXxbZ01K34C_L9wff/s320/Figure%202.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">The Irish Automobile Club premises, present day. Source: The <br />National Inventory of Architectural Heritage.</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p>One particularly interesting chapter of Blayney’s life concerns a series of correspondences between him and the Irish Automobile Club over the course of 1915.[23] A patriot, Blayney loaned his car to the Club for use in the transfer of wounded soldiers.[24] Unfortunately for both him and the Club, the car would soon break down and a dispute would ensue over the cost of the repairs. It’s a fascinating look into a personal dispute and proof of the old saying “no good deed goes unpunished”. <br /><br />Blayney’s collection only contains the responses from the Club and a mechanic. He does not seem to have kept drafts of his letters in this case despite keeping other drafts.[25] As such we can only read the responses to whatever he wrote. The Club’s responses, mostly written by H.J. Clayton, appear more and more exasperated with whatever Blayney wrote them. The relationship between Blayney and the Club does not seem to have ended very amicably. <br /><br />I bring up this case because it offers such an interesting glimpse into Blayney’s personality, yet Blayney’s own words are lost to us. The set of letters tell a particular narrative. The first letter profusely thanks Blayney for his contribution.[26] The next few letters give some details on the car’s breakdown within a month of the previous donation and discuss the Club’s inability to pay for repairs.[27] This begins a year-long dispute over who should pay for the car repairs. <br /><br />This is a compelling sub-series for me. The letters, one-sided as they may be, tell a story of frustration on both ends. Blayney as viewed through Clayton’s letters seems frustrated with the Club for damaging his car, asking him to pay for repairs, and taking a long time in fixing the car. The Club, on the other hand, appears frustrated with Blayney for not paying and then leaving his car in their garage for a long time while the dispute was going on. There’s a certain sense of mundaneness in the letters, of a fairly common sort of argument over who should pay for something, even occurring as they did in the middle of a large international conflict. It’s such a human moment. <br /><br />I had a very personal reaction to these letters when I first read them. James Lowry discusses this “affective response”, which he argues that users of archival material can employ in order to better “bear witness” to the people and events they are studying.[28] As I bore witness to this episode of Blayney’s life, I didn’t like what I saw. The letters in my experience of them do not paint Blayney in a very positive light. I found myself getting annoyed with him as I read the responses from the Automobile Club. Without Blayney’s own words to speak for himself, I could only view him through the words of an organization that he was in conflict with. <br /><br />There is an archival concept called imagined records.[29] These are records that may have, could have, or we want to exist, but that we can’t find. We ascribe a lot of significance to these imagined records and we feel their loss. Imagined records can be incredibly personal for the person imagining them – creating their own affective response.[30] I’ve seen examples ranging from the medical records of a stillborn child to the records of colonised nations that were lost during decolonisation.[31] Compared to such painful events, some missing letters about car repairs may seem rather trite. Why compare them to much more important cases? Small instances can be used to conceptualise the wider problem – that archives can very rarely tell the whole story. <br /><br />I can imagine the letters that Blayney sent. There are drafts of other letters and notes that he wrote in the collection.[32] From these I can piece out his writing style, his handwriting. I can guess some of the things that he wrote to the Club from Clayton’s responses. For example, Blayney seems to have wanted to know the details of exactly what parts of his car were worked on. There are several letters responding to his questions.[33]<br /><br />I can’t know exactly what he said, however, and herein lies the trap. When I read the letters I felt annoyed at his imagined slights against the writers. Did that annoyance make me imagine his letters as more aggressive, more petulant than they might have been? Did I project my own experiences with similar disputes onto Blayney? This too I can’t know because I can’t read his letters. I can only imagine what might have been.</div><div><br /></div><div><h3 style="text-align: left;">Mrs Blayney’s Medical Reports </h3><div><br /></div><div>Another item in the collection that fascinates me is Item 44. It’s a set of nurses’ reports from the first of November, 1918 to the thirtieth of the same month.[34] Mrs Blayney became sick and was admitted to the hospital late in her second pregnancy. A month later she gave birth prematurely to her son.[35] Blayney kept the nurses’ reports on his wife’s health in his personal records.</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi41N_wwaik1dmBD4vVzant3Rqi3aOkQkr8W-1zytBF4b-StG0OLq1NUXzYdO8_rJ68c7sUChajZuu8KQ_PtYOYw2Sp2rHapnxc8t3h0KAzc8lRyrQfa5ffDuPmYODo_v0Cjs-_aNdk5JVM-5Ri989Voj0GU5gYFRShXgxP_7e2omf0Y6VytAW6-hRf35Ng/s311/Figure%203.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="311" data-original-width="249" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi41N_wwaik1dmBD4vVzant3Rqi3aOkQkr8W-1zytBF4b-StG0OLq1NUXzYdO8_rJ68c7sUChajZuu8KQ_PtYOYw2Sp2rHapnxc8t3h0KAzc8lRyrQfa5ffDuPmYODo_v0Cjs-_aNdk5JVM-5Ri989Voj0GU5gYFRShXgxP_7e2omf0Y6VytAW6-hRf35Ng/w320-h400/Figure%203.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">A nurse’s reports from the collection. Use</span>d with <br />permission from the RCPI Heritage Centre.</p></td></tr></tbody></table>The reports detail Eily’s diet, her temperature, her medications, and even her urine. The majority of each page is bare, with only a few markings indicating what the nurses did. The last few pages are even blank but for some reason Blayney kept them anyway.[36] What does this say about Blayney, that he kept these records? <br /><br />As a doctor, these records would make more sense to Blayney than to a layperson. These records could have had more value to him than someone who is not a doctor. But being able to read and understand a set of records is not the whole story. If Blayney had kept every set of medical records that he could get his hands on, the collection would be much larger than it is. <br /><br />Blayney was not a meticulous record-keeper like Manning Clark. This means that there are fewer of Blayney’s documents that we can study, but conversely that also lends more weight to the documents that he chose to keep. If Clark’s collection is intentional and vast, Blayney’s is serendipitous and specific. His records seem to be confined to important documentation like income tax returns, professional papers, and items of personal interest. In which category would Blayney place the nurses’ records? <br /><br />What were these thirty-three pages to Blayney? Important documentation relating to a family medical emergency? Perhaps, but likely not thought of in the way that he viewed an income tax return or furniture invoice. Something related to his profession as a doctor? Another document is a register of examination notes, so it’s not out of the realm of possibilities that he could have had a similar interest in keeping his wife’s nursing records.[37] However, Eily went to a different hospital than Queen’s County Infirmary, where he worked at the time.[38] These nurses’ reports would have had no direct bearing on his career. Blayney’s medical speciality also seem to have been tuberculosis, not what seems to have been pneumonia or influenza.[39] Or were these simply papers describing a difficult time in his wife’s life, made worse by the premature birth of his son shortly after her release?[40]<br /><br />We can’t know for sure but we can guess. Perhaps we can see this as another very human moment. Blayney kept the details of Eily’s treatment in what was likely a very difficult time in both of their lives. Blayney seems to have cared about his wife, enough to push past his mother’s disapproval for their union.[41] It would make sense for him to be invested in her wellbeing. His exact motivations are not clear, but with this document we can approach a sense of the care that he felt for his wife and son. <br /><br />This document is compelling for the questions that it raises. The archive can provide us with tantalising clues but rarely a smoking gun. Handed the concrete evidence of one man’s life I can only feel the weight of what is missing from Blayney’s records. Julia Laite wrote that “friendship… is so often missing from the historical record.”[42] Interpersonal relationships are often hard to pin down in the records we leave behind. We may be given clues but concrete proof eludes us.</div><div> <h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Conclusion</span></b></h3><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">While I’ve spent a good deal of words on what is missing from this collection, I’d like to spend a few more on what can be found. This collection is full of insights into the life of an average doctor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Blayney’s papers were kept within his family’s hands for almost one hundred years before they were donated to the RCPI.[43] A lot can happen in one hundred years to a box of papers. Neil J. Brennan attributes the wealth of material still available to his mother and grandmother being “inveterate hoarders” and a great deal of thanks should be given to them for maintaining these documents.[44] I’ve spent a lot of time attributing quirks in the collection to Blayney’s choices, but Eily and Mary, Dr Blayney’s wife and daughter, deserve credit for their roles as family archivists. It is through their efforts that we now can study Dr Blayney’s life. <br /><br />This collection is fascinating for its serendipity, both in what documents Blayney chose to keep and in its journey to the RCPI archival collections. The documents were far more likely to be destroyed or lost than to make their way into a traditional archival collection. Through this collection and other collections like it, we can see as if through a glass darkly aspects of the ordinary past that are so often forgotten. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br /></p><h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;">Hannah Kempel </h3><div><br /></div><div>Hannah Kempel is a student on UCD's MA in History of Welfare and Medicine in Society</div><div> </div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">1. Katie Barclay, ‘Falling in love with the
dead’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rethinking History</i> 22, no. 4
(2018), pp. 459-473.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">2. Michelle Caswell and Marika Cifor, ‘From
Human Rights to Feminist Ethics: Radical Empathy in the Archives’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Archivaria</i>, 81 (2016), pp. 23-43.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">3. Barclay, ‘Falling in love with the dead’.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">4. Neil J. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes</i> (Ireland, 2019), pp. 1.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">5. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 4-5.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">6. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 18.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">7. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 28.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">8. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 53.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">9. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 61.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">10. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">11. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">12. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. viii.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">13. Caiomhe Rehill and Harriet Wheelock, ‘Neil
John Blayney Papers’, RCPI Heritage Centre, pp. 1-30, accessed online,
https://rcpi-live-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Neil-John-Blayney.pdf,
3 December 2021.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">14. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 61-73, 75,
76, 78-88.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">15. Mark McKenna, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Eye For Eternity</i> (Carlton, 2011), pp. 32-33.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">16.
https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/donations/, accessed 3 December 2021.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">17. ‘Acquisition Policy 2018-2022’,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An Chartlann Náisiúnta | National Archives,
pp. 1-16, accessed online,
https://www.nationalarchives.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Acquisition-Policy.pdf,
3 December 2021.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">18. McKenna, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Eye For Eternity, </i>pp. 32.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">19. McKenna, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Eye For Eternity, </i>pp. 553.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">20. McKenna, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Eye For Eternity, </i>pp. 32.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">21. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. viii.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">22. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62; McKenna, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Eye For Eternity, </i>pp. 553.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">23. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 45-57.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">24. RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 45.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">25. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 13, 14, 90.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">26. RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 45.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">27. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 46-47.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">28. James Lowry, ‘Radical empathy, the
imaginary and affect in (post)colonial records: how to break out of
international stalemates on displaced archives’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Archival Science</i>, 19 (2016), pp. 193.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">29. Anne J. Gilliland and Michelle Caswell,
‘Records and their imaginaries: imagining the impossible, making possible the
imagined’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Archival Science</i>, 16
(2015), pp. 53-75.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">30. Gilliland and Caswell, ‘Records and their
imaginaries’; Lowry, ‘Radical empathy, the imaginary and affect in
(post)colonial records’.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">31. Gilliland and Caswell,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘Records and their imaginaries’; Lowry,
‘Radical empathy, the imaginary and affect in (post)colonial records’.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">32. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 13, 14, 90.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">33. RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 56, 57.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">34. RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 44.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">35. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">36. RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 44.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">37. RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 97.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">38. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 35.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">39. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 36-7; Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">40. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 62.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">41. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. 60.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">42. Julia Laite, ‘The Emmet’s Inch: Small
History in a Digital Age’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of
Social History</i> 53, no. 4 (2020), pp. 963-989.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">43. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. ix.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">44. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes, </i>pp. viii.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p></div>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3097268 -6.2215897-1.6890525693854457 -76.5340897 90 64.0909103tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-34137044544444827382022-08-15T17:30:00.068+01:002023-11-01T13:55:04.008+00:00The Eminent and Amiable Doctor Mills<div style="text-align: left;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">In this blog post, Fiona Slevin, a PhD candidate at UCD's <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/history/">School of History</a>, explores the career of Dr Thomas
Mills ([1773]-1830) using archival material donated to the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/">Royal College of Physicians of
Ireland's Heritage Centre</a>.</span></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></i><span lang="EN-GB">In the late summer of 1830, Dr Thomas Mills
of Dublin travelled to Paris with his wife Augusta and sister Kitty. Despite
concerns about Thomas’ health, the trio enjoyed a stimulating time meeting
friends and seeing the sites of Paris. They stayed at the centrally-located
Hôtel des Îsles Britanniques, beside Place Vendôme and Jardin des Tuileries,
and the two women experienced the delights of shopping at the vast and
glittering Palais Royale. Thomas was more keen to attend political talks
and consult with fellow medics. In a letter to his brother back in Dublin,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas wrote that he ‘</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;">had the good
fortune’ </span><span lang="EN-GB">to hear General Lafayette, Lafitte and Dupin –
all radical, libertarian leaders of the Paris Revolution that had taken place
only five weeks earlier.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal">Who was this Thomas Mills whose ‘heart was
pleased’<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[3]</span></span></span>
to hear the leading liberal, republican thought-leaders of Paris? There are
huge gaps in what we know of the man, and much of the information we have on
Mills is drawn from his public profile as a physician. However, we get glimpses
of his personal life and private thoughts in a series of letters he wrote from
the Armagh and Down countryside, mostly in summer 1805. The letters provide
insight into Mills’ personal values and political beliefs as well as presenting
acute observations of the lives of people of County Down. The letters are now
held in the Royal College of Physicians archive, as part of the Kirkpatrick
Collection.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[4]</span></span></span></p><h3 style="text-align: left;">Thomas Mills, Physician ([1773]-1830)</h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXed3LhRM5xLc413Lg1b_gYgqI938lg2xPVPU6Nz1k5NI8xXgFBhBSQkf0t1AEfFBT5HPUMFsFOb6GPbx1bxe_uiqcio92vyQdIWmTpvcR8r1TJgUETuBAzwOj78kqutqcb48z3vI3dVuQGlm_q5qhwEvOhdyAMRae6qpUj-IIjuB3q2x6fMcoQMIiAp1c/s200/Figure%201.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="200" data-original-width="170" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXed3LhRM5xLc413Lg1b_gYgqI938lg2xPVPU6Nz1k5NI8xXgFBhBSQkf0t1AEfFBT5HPUMFsFOb6GPbx1bxe_uiqcio92vyQdIWmTpvcR8r1TJgUETuBAzwOj78kqutqcb48z3vI3dVuQGlm_q5qhwEvOhdyAMRae6qpUj-IIjuB3q2x6fMcoQMIiAp1c/w272-h320/Figure%201.png" width="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB">Figure </span><span lang="EN-GB">1</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="text-align: left;"><i> Portrait of Thomas Mills by Martin <br />Cregan 1788-1870, Royal College of Physicians <br />of Ireland Ref 1850.3, reproduced under <br />Creative Commons Licence CC BY-NC-ND 4.0<br /></i></span></td></tr></tbody></table><span lang="EN-GB">Thomas Mills was born c.1773 into a large
and relatively affluent Irish medical family.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Like many Irish physicians, Mills chose to study at Edinburgh University, where
the education system was seen as high quality, liberal and innovative; as
importantly, it was less expensive than<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>its English and continental counterparts.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Of the 152 Irish men who graduated in medicine in the 1790s, 103 had studied in
Edinburgh, and only 17 in Dublin.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
After graduating as a doctor of Medicine in 1797, Mills returned to Dublin and
in 1803, gained his licence to practice with the King and Queen's College of
Physicians in Ireland.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He became one of six physicians at a new Fever Hospital and House of Recovery
in Cork Street, that opened on 14 May 1804 </span><span style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">to provide relief for the ‘</span><span lang="EN-GB">sick</span><span style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> poor’ of Dublin</span><span lang="EN-GB">.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He stayed less than a year. By March 1805, he had departed for County Down, and
in May he tendered his resignation.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
His reasons for resigning are unclear, though he did so after a ‘long and
violent struggle with my feelings’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He may have clashed with his hospital colleagues over his approach to medicine,
since he was alone in his strong advocacy of blood-letting and the use of
leeches as a treatment for fever.<span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;">,
where he typically took between four and six ounces on three or four
consecutive days</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Mills was also a strong proponent of the theory that there was only one kind of
fever which could take different forms depending on the organ or part of the
body that was affected. Thus, he believed that diseases ranging from typhus,
scarlet fever, influenza, diphtheria and measles, were all manifestations of a
single disease that could be caused or exacerbated by poor diet or bad air.
Mills himself was in poor health, and he may have wanted to escape the miasma
of smog and dirt of Dublin. Either way, he spent from March to September 1805
in the countryside of Down and Armagh. He lived mostly in the village of
Loughbrickland, near Banbridge, but many of his letters were written from
Tartaraghan, some 18 miles from Loughbrickland, where he and his sisters stayed
a month with their brother, Richard who was a curate there. He spent much of
the summer trying to eat, sleep and exercise well to induce recovery.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span><p></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB">Radical thinking</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">At Loughbrickland, Mills came face-to-face
with the realities of the political situation, and its impact on religious
tensions, poverty and local landlord-tenant relations. The village was in the
heart of the countryside and populated by some 600 people,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
which he described as being mostly Presbyterian, with some Catholics and
Protestants.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> This is
important since Mills arrived there soon after the Irish rebellion of 1798, and
the Act of Union (1801), which abolished the Irish parliament and helped build
momentum behind the cause of Catholic Emancipation. Both events created
upheaval and pervaded the thinking of disparate parts of the population.
Although large numbers of Irish people fought with the British against
Napoleon, there was much support for France, particularly amongst those who had
sympathised with the American revolution in the 1780s. This latter group
included certain classes of Catholics, city dwellers and especially, Ulster
Presbyterians.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Mills
was amongst this cohort, and his views had been sharpened during his time at
Edinburgh. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Edinburgh at the time was not just a place to
study medicine. Through the 1790s, it was a breeding ground for radical and
novel thinking, and the university was a centre for a specifically Scottish type
of Enlightenment thinking that promoted rationalism, humanism and empiricism.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
The ideas of Thomas Paine and his <i>Rights of Man</i> (co-written with
General Lafayette), were widely circulated and discussed, and many new radical
societies emerged that sought political and religious reform. Later</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> in the decade –
just as Mills was graduating – societies of United Scotsmen emerged that
aligned with the United Irishmen.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> It is highly
likely that Mills was familiar with Irish radical contemporaries like Thomas
Drennan who graduated from Edinburgh medical school twenty-one years before
Mills. In Dublin from the 1790s, Drennan was active in<span style="background: white;"> the Volunteer movement and the fight for an independent, reformed Irish
parliament, and</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> was a key leader in the Dublin
Society of United Irishmen.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
We know that Mills admired Dr Alexander Crawford of Lisburn, since he called on
him to attend his mother in May 1805.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Dr Crawford was well known and had an extensive medical practice; he was also a
radical and active Volunteer in 1793/4, was implicated in activities with the
French in 1794, and was arrested with other United Irishmen in 1796.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
<o:p></o:p></span></p><h3 style="text-align: left;">Loughbrickland
realities</h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUibLqtJnWFAJDXXuwN3s-XN_5VSCCDGvYMObsZ3mIqzv0Mb4fl6g-7zo3MgP72baEqf6cUCuvo6DBeofoEoJJUTHiJFkM0wUNyRemevFTS2rcHklYwki9IXFHdTIbgBQL9vZfmxowH6ALDXeNAphAiS-YZsZTvY-QUrhdmcS7DSQloeWFfXcajScZUVLb/s1072/Figure%202.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="831" data-original-width="1072" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUibLqtJnWFAJDXXuwN3s-XN_5VSCCDGvYMObsZ3mIqzv0Mb4fl6g-7zo3MgP72baEqf6cUCuvo6DBeofoEoJJUTHiJFkM0wUNyRemevFTS2rcHklYwki9IXFHdTIbgBQL9vZfmxowH6ALDXeNAphAiS-YZsZTvY-QUrhdmcS7DSQloeWFfXcajScZUVLb/w400-h310/Figure%202.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">Figure </span><span lang="EN-GB">2</span><span lang="EN-GB">: The Quack Doctor by John Boyne, </span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB">dated 1746-1800. </span></i><i>The drawing by a County </i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>Down </i><i>artist, shows a ‘quack’ doctor </i><i>with </i><i>local people; ‘quack’ doctors competed </i><i>with </i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>physicians </i><i>like Thomas </i><i>Mills in an unregulated, </i><i>emerging market. </i><span lang="EN-GB"><i>© The Trustees of the </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB"><i>British Museum. </i></span><i>Museum Number </i><i>1890,0512.13, </i><i>reproduced </i><i>under </i><i>Creative Commons </i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>Licence CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.</i></div><div><span lang="EN-GB"><i><br /></i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The young Thomas Mills absorbed these radical, new ideals and they
underpinned his perspective and observations on Loughbrickland. With its mix of
religions, </span><span lang="EN-GB">Loughbrickland was exactly the type of area
that experienced repercussions from the 1798 Rebellion, which in many areas led
to a decline in interaction and good feeling between Catholics and their
neighbours.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> In July
1805, he wrote ‘</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;">religion has a
powerful influence on our civil and political opinions’, and observed ‘</span><span lang="EN-GB">with regret’ that the longstanding animosity between all classes of Catholics
and Protestants had erupted into open disputes. ‘The flame is only smothered’,
he wrote, and very little would make the flames ‘blaze forth’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He bewails </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">the</span><span lang="EN-GB"> ‘depraved’ men who sought to make religion ‘an engine of
government’, for the ‘vilest and most base’ reasons.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Yet he was not truly a radical, at least in the Edinburgh style: while he
sought reform, he believed that religion was fundamental to human development,
and could not be easily laid aside.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">There are also elements of </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Lamarckian thinking
in Mills’ letters. </span><span lang="EN-GB">Lamarck’s theory posits that a
person’s characteristics could be acquired by behaviour,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
and passed through to the next generation. The m</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">ore radical thinkers, including a number of
medics at Edinburgh University, supported this,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
and threads can be seen in Mills’ writing. </span><span lang="EN-GB">Mills wrote
that he saw a ‘great number of patients’ with asthma and consumption.
Consistent with his views on fever, he discounts lack of fuel, poor clothing, ‘mode
of living’ and the weather as causes. Rather, he attributes the illnesses
partly to ‘the intemperance and debauchery of our forefathers’, and cites
‘constant inter-marriage of families’ and a ‘long abstinence from animal feed
and other nourishing diet’ as contributing factors.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">However,
Mills was not a true Lamarckian, in that he was not an atheist or
anti-Religion;<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"> <span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> on the
contrary, he frequently mentions the value of religious thinking and
instruction as</span><span lang="EN-GB"> essential to morality, wisdom and
happiness. He could be seen to be Lamarckian in that he believed that</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">people could,
through their own exertions, advance their position and power.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span>
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMrlgRRAMu3CQH3xuElmghBXCHe2BNW15GiMCfjdH_Glia-OuuZi1p-VKhxZGfFyFvuQ8wgfhS357ov4fhsRRuZoxRmoARJM4JTtELjoGkYO0LuLdGX-E_bIoRv1oT5xJp6Wm33LDexgMZ92tlWklV4qyzCgb1ufHj3PrX1CJF1YXBsndYyJDMz6j6RONX/s494/Figure%203.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="408" data-original-width="494" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMrlgRRAMu3CQH3xuElmghBXCHe2BNW15GiMCfjdH_Glia-OuuZi1p-VKhxZGfFyFvuQ8wgfhS357ov4fhsRRuZoxRmoARJM4JTtELjoGkYO0LuLdGX-E_bIoRv1oT5xJp6Wm33LDexgMZ92tlWklV4qyzCgb1ufHj3PrX1CJF1YXBsndYyJDMz6j6RONX/w400-h330/Figure%203.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB"><i>Figure 3: Print by <span class="vterm">William Hincks, ‘</span>Taken on the spot in the </i></span><span lang="EN-GB"><i>County of Downe, </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>Representing Spinning, Reeling with the Clock </i><i>Reel, and </i><i>Boiling the Yarn’, </i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>Plate VI of The Linen Manufactory of </i><span lang="EN-GB"><i>Ireland, 1791. </i></span><span lang="EN-GB"><i>This scene may reflect </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB"><i>what Thomas Mills perceived </i></span><i>when he wrote of the industriousness of the women </i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>of County Down, </i><i>with their sewing, spinning, weaving and knitting.</i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB"><i>Museum number 1877,0113.375, © The Trustees of the British </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB"><i>Museum, reproduced under Creative Commons Licence.</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Many of Mills’ letters focus on the work
habits and productivity of the people of Tartaraghan and Loughbrickland. He
noted the highly-cultivated fields and neat, clean and comfortable looking
cabins and he admired the work ethic of farmers who supplemented their farm
income by weaving.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He also admired the capability and industriousness of women who worked at
sewing, spinning, weaving and knitting, and engaged in making hay, digging
potatoes, pulling flax and reaping the harvest.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He was realistic enough to realise that poor families, no matter how hard they
worked, could often not earn enough to ‘provide themselves with the
necessities, much less the comforts of life’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Mills’ letters reflect a deep awareness of the unequal distribution of wealth
between the land-owning and the tenant classes. He acknowledges that the wealth
of people like himself, living ‘in the lap of luxury and pleasure’, depended on
the very existence of a discontented tenantry, asking if it should be
surprising that ‘such men become rebels’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He even anticipates the potential of a French-style revolution if this is not
addressed. He writes, ‘We will not discover, I fear, our real interest, ‘till
fatal experience teach it to us - ‘till we taste a little of those sorrows that
we have made others feel’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[35]</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Overall, Mills' settles on education and
virtue as the best response to poverty and bigotry:<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
a fairer, more equitable country could be built if young people were taught to
be ‘good citizens’, to ‘admire virtue and despise vice, and to be frugal,
industrious and sober’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[37]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He lauds the local people for sending their children to school,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[38]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
and conversely, considers the potential for ‘despotism and slavery’ if
property-owners are not well-educated.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He goes so far as to call for a law to prohibit any man ‘unacquainted with the
Principles of Liberty’ from owning Property.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
In many ways, Mills appears less a radical and liberal than an Improver,
focusing on relieving poverty and achieving </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">social and moral transformation</span> <span lang="EN-GB">through economic growth, education, and application of rational,
Enlightenment principals</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB">Building a career</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">By September 1805, Mills had gained ‘health
and strength’, and anticipated returning to Dublin.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Unfortunately, we do not know when Mills did settle back in the city. He got
married at a relatively advanced age</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> in 1814 to the 31 year old </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Augusta Sophia Hamill.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Little about the
couple’s personal life is known, except that they lived for a time at the
family home (possibly with Michael Mills) at 41 Dominick Street, Dublin, and by</span><span lang="EN-GB"> 1829, had moved a street away to 38 Granby Row</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB">As a physician, Mills is recorded as treating patients in Dublin by
the mid-1810s. He is not listed in the 1809 annual report of Cork Street
hospital,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> though
he may have returned to it in subsequent years, since he wrote a paper in 1813
based on case studies from there.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
In one noteworthy intervention, he was called as a witness to the declaration
of a miracle by the Catholic Diocese of Dublin. Mills had been treating Mrs
Mary Stuart, a religious sister in Ranelagh Convent, Dublin in 1823 for four
years prior to her ‘miraculous’ recovery.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Mills cannot have
liked the newspaper coverage, and especially the </span><span lang="EN-GB">mockery
</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">the
miracle declaration </span><span lang="EN-GB">attracted from Protestant clergy
and other physicians. That incident notwithstanding, Mills kept close to the
Dublin medical fraternity and set out to establish his position, with the hope
of rising to the ‘head of my profession’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Some of the ambition that his brother Michael observed in him at the start of
his career remained,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
and Thomas took only a short time to achieve the wealth and ‘higher rank in
society’ that he sought.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Mills published a series of papers and case studies over the years, including</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB">essays on blood-letting, typhus, and on various diseases of the liver,
brain and other organs.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
By 1824, Mills had consolidated his position as a physician in Dublin. </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Mills’ ambition saw
him </span><span lang="EN-GB">elected as joint vice-President and President of the
</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Association
of Members of the King and Queen’s College of Physician of Ireland</span><span lang="EN-GB"> in 1821,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"> and </span><span lang="EN-GB">1823<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
respectively. While he clearly enjoyed some support from his medical colleagues</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> within the College</span><span lang="EN-GB">, </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Mills never became President or Vice-President of the College itself.</span>
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB">To Paris</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Twenty-five years after his letters from
Armagh and Down, Mills travelled to France to alleviate his declining health.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
He may have gone to seek a change of air, to recover from overwork and
‘exertion of the intellectual faculties’, or for something more serious.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In his
letter of 3 September 1830, Mills writes that </span><span lang="EN-GB">he
consulted with Dr </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Crawford</span> <span lang="EN-GB">– ‘a kind friend’ – who </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">advised him to go on
</span><span lang="EN-GB">to Nice. </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">He followed the advice, but died there two months
later,</span> <span lang="EN-GB">on 6 November 1830</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB">He was 57. The<i>
Belfast Newsletter</i> noted the death of this eminent and distinguished
physician who had made an extraordinary contribution to his profession. Mills,
it said, had been an ‘amiable and interesting companion, and a generous
friend’, and his death was ‘a source of deep affliction’ to a wide circle of
friends and colleagues.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
After his death, Augusta Sophia continued to reside at their home at 15 Rutland
Square East </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">for at least the next five years;</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> in 1838, she
married Dr William Turner at Malvern Wells in Worcestershire.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Conclusion
</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">While the letters represent a limited source, it seems reasonable to
conclude that Thomas Mills was a radical in his mind, a liberal in his heart,
and a pragmatist in his practice. His observations of country life are acute
and interspersed with the enlightenment ideas and radical principles he honed
at Edinburgh University, but his absorption of these principles and ideals was
selective, particularly in relation to his belief in the value of religion.
That he was sincere in his desire to address the plight of the poor is
evidenced by his taking a position at the Cork Street hospital, and his letters
are infused with sympathy and some empathy for the poor of County Down. He was
not extremist enough to be overtly public with his views; nor did his radical ideals
supersede his position in society or role as a physician, as in the case of
people like Drennan or Crawford. Nor, it turns out, was Mills’ espoused
ambition enough to see him rise to the very top of his profession as he had
wished. The <i>Belfast Newsletter</i> may have been correct in remembering him
as </span><span lang="EN-GB">an eminent physician and amiable companion, whose ‘qualifications,
both of head and heart, were of no ordinary description’.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="color: #262626; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-GB">The letters of Dr Thomas Mills are held
in the archives of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland Heritage Centre, and
are part of the Thomas Percy Claude Kirkpatrick Archive, also known as the
Dr Kirkpatrick collection.</span></i></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-GB">Fiona Slevin</span></h3><div><span lang="EN-GB">Fiona Slevin is a PhD Candidate at UCD's School of History. </span></div><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></i></p><div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Thomas
Mills, 3 September 1830, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/26.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> The
French Revolution of 1830 took place between 26-29 July 1830, and resulted in
the abdication of Charles X; the king was replaced with a constitutional
monarchy with Louis Philippe on the throne. Lafayette was leader of the
opposition and had been a hero of the American Revolution of the late 1770s; he
co-wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"> </span>and was an outspoken advocate of religious
toleration and the abolition of the slave trade.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"> </span>Lafitte was also a member of the Chamber
of Deputies and led the development of finance and banking post-revolution.
Dupin (likely Dupin the Elder), was a magistrate, eminent advocate, and
President of the Chamber of Deputies for eight sessions.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 3 September 1830, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/26.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> ‘Letters
from Thomas Mills TPCK/6/3/5, in the Thomas Percy Claude Kirkpatrick Archive’,
n.d., The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland Heritage Centre.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Harriet Wheelock,
‘My Dear Mich …’, <i>RCPI Heritage Centre Blog</i>, June 13, 2011; available
from <a href="http://rcpilibrary.blogspot.com/2011/06/my-dear-mich.html"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://rcpilibrary.blogspot.com/2011/06/my-dear-mich.html</span></a>;
accessed 21 September 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
‘Scottish Enlightenment’, <i>British Council</i>, July 2016; available from <a href="https://www.britishcouncil.org/research-policy-insight/insight-articles/scottish-enlightenment"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://www.britishcouncil.org/research-policy-insight/insight-articles/scottish-enlightenment</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Laurence
Brockliss, ‘Medicine, Religion and Social Mobility in Eighteenth- and Early
Nineteenth-Century Ireland’, in <i>Ireland and Medicine in the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries</i>, eds. James Kelly and Fiona Clark (London, 2016), p
77.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Harriet Wheelock,
‘My Dear Mich …’, <i>RCPI Heritage Centre Blog</i>, June 13, 2011; available
from <a href="http://rcpilibrary.blogspot.com/2011/06/my-dear-mich.html"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://rcpilibrary.blogspot.com/2011/06/my-dear-mich.html</span></a>;
accessed 21 September 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> ‘Cork
Street Fever Hospital and House of Recovery’, <i>Cork Street Fever Hospital</i>,
October 2015; available from <a href="http://corkstreetfeverhospital.ie/"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://corkstreetfeverhospital.ie/</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 1 May 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/2.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 1 May 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/2.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> John
Farmer, <i>Patients, Potions & Physicians: A Social History of Medicine in
Ireland, 1654-2004</i>, (Dublin, 2004), p71, 74.<span face=""Source Sans Pro",sans-serif" style="color: #0a0a0a; font-size: 15pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 18 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/8.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Samuel Lewis, <i>A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland</i>, (Dublin, 1837),
lists the population as 617 people.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn15" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, (n.d. possibly 1 or 2) July 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn16" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Kennedy,
W. Benjamin, Catholics in Ireland and the French Revolution, <i>Records of
the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia</i>, Vol 85, No.
3/4, 1974, pp 221.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn17" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
‘Scottish Enlightenment’, <i>British Council</i>, July 2016; available from <a href="https://www.britishcouncil.org/research-policy-insight/insight-articles/scottish-enlightenment"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://www.britishcouncil.org/research-policy-insight/insight-articles/scottish-enlightenment</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn18" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
‘Scotland and the French Revolution’, <i>The Scottish History Society</i>,
n.d.; available from <a href="https://scottishhistorysociety.com/scotland-and-the-french-revolution/"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://scottishhistorysociety.com/scotland-and-the-french-revolution/</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn19" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> A.T.Q.
Stewart, ‘William Drennan’, in <a href="https://www.dib.ie/index.php/"><i><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dictionary of Irish Bibliography</span></i></a><i>,</i>
October 2009, Royal Irish Academy, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.002765.v1"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.002765.v1</span></a>, accessed 9 December
2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn20" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Thomas
Mills, 14 May 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn21" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> C.J.
Woods, ‘Alexander Crawford’ in <a href="https://www.dib.ie/index.php/"><i><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dictionary of Irish Bibliography</span></i></a><i>,</i>
revised December 2010, Royal Irish Academy, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.002156.v2"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.002156.v2</span></a>,<span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span>accessed 9 December 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn22" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
John Gamble, edited by Breandán Mac Suibhne, Society and manners in early
nineteenth-century Ireland, Field Day, 2011, XXV.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn23" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Thomas
Mills, 12 July 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/10.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn24" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 12 July 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/10.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn25" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 1 September 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/17.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn26" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> P.J.
Bowler, ‘Evolution, History Of’, in <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social
& Behavioral Sciences</i>, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (Oxford,
2001), 4986–92; available from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767030679"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767030679</span></a>.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn27" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Adrian Desmond, The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in
Radical London (Chicago, 1989), 5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn28" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 29 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, RCPI Kirkpatrick
Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/15.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn29" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Adrian Desmond, The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in
Radical London (Chicago, 1989), 4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn30" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Adrian Desmond, The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in
Radical London (Chicago, 1989), 5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn31" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 9 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/1.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn32" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 28 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, RCPI Kirkpatrick
Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/13.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn33" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Thomas
Mills, 30 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/16<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn34" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 3 July 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn35" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[35]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Thomas
Mills, 3 July 1805, p9- 10, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn36" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 13 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn37" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[37]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 13-14 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn38" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[38]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, (n.d., possibly 1 or 2 July 1805), RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive,
TPCK/6/3/5/5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn39" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 18 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/9.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn40" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 18 August 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/9.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn41" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> W.
Forsythe, ‘The Measures and Materiality of Improvement in Ireland’, <i>International
Journal of Historical Archaeology</i> 17, no. 1 (2013), 73.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn42" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 4 September 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/19.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn43" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Maria
Luddy and Mary O’Dowd, eds., ‘Meeting and Matching with a Partner’, in <i>Marriage
in Ireland, 1660–1925</i> (Cambridge, 2020), 91–134; available from <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/marriage-in-ireland-16601925/meeting-and-matching-with-a-partner/EDDDE9E6E154ED7B3DAF063F99B75B9E"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/marriage-in-ireland-16601925/meeting-and-matching-with-a-partner/EDDDE9E6E154ED7B3DAF063F99B75B9E</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn44" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Probate
Record and Marriage License Index, 1270-1858,</i> Keeper of the Public Records
in Ireland, (Dublin, Ireland), 745; available from <a href="http://www.ancestry.co.uk/"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">www.ancestry.co.uk</span></a>;
accessed 24 November 2021.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn45" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Annual
Report of the Managing Committee of the House of Recovery, and Fever-Hospital,
in Cork Street Dublin, for the Year Ending 4th January, 1809</i> (Dublin,
1809); available from <a href="http://corkstreetfeverhospital.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/1808.pdf"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://corkstreetfeverhospital.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/1808.pdf</span></a>;
accessed 9 December 2021.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn46" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
An essay on the utility of Blood-Letting in Fever, (Dublin, 1813).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn47" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Belfast
Newsletter</i>, 22 & 29 August 1823; <i>The Freeman’s Journal</i>, 25
August 1823.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn48" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Thomas Mills, 1 May 1805, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/2.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn49" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Michael Mills, 13 May 1824, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/21.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn50" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
Michael Mills, 13 May 1824, RCPI Kirkpatrick Archive, TPCK/6/3/5/21.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn51" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>An
essay on the utility of Blood-Letting in Fever</i>, (Dublin, 1813); <i>The
Morbid Anatomy of the Brain in Typhus Fever</i>, (Dublin, 1817); <i>Observations
on the Diseases of the </i>Liver’ (Dublin, 1811 and 2<sup>nd</sup> edition
1821); <i>An Account of the Morbid Appearances exhibited on Dissection in
various Disorders of the Brain</i>, (Dublin, 1826); and <i>An Account of the
Morbid Appearances exhibited on Dissection in Disorders of the Trachea, Lungs
and Heart</i>, (Dublin, 1829). <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn52" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
The Freeman’s Journal, 11 May 1821.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn53" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Transactions
of the Association of Fellows and Licentiates of the King’s and Queen’s College
of Physicians in Ireland. Volume 4, 1824</i>, digitised by Wellcome
Library; available from <a href="http://archive.org/details/s3id13658270"><span style="color: #262626; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://archive.org/details/s3id13658270</span></a>;
accessed 25 November 2021.<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn54" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Belfast
Newsletter</i>, 26 Nov 1830.. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn55" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Richard
E. Morris, ‘The Victorian “Change of Air” as Medical and Social Construction’, <i>Journal
of Tourism History</i> 10, no. 1 (January 2, 2018), 4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn56" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Belfast
Newsletter</i>, 26 Nov 1830.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn57" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> Pettigrew<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;"> and Oulton, <i>The Dublin Almanac and General Register Of Ireland</i>,
1835, 308.</span><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn58" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="Footnote"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="color: #262626; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 217;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <i>Belfast
Newsletter</i>, 26 Nov 1830.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div><br />UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3097268 -6.221589732.001136660661885 -41.377839699999988 74.618316939338115 28.934660299999987tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-17712156937378915802021-03-30T17:29:00.001+01:002021-05-09T17:40:01.733+01:00Through the Archives: Community Doctors of the Past<p style="text-align: left;"><i>In
this blog post, Simone Doyle, a student on UCD's <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240">MA in History of Welfare &
Medicine in Society</a>, explores the career of Dr Neil John Blayney (1874-1919)
using archival material donated to the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland's Heritage Centre</a>.</i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></p><p style="border: none; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Doctors in Obscurity</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Several notable figures tend
to dominate our discussions of doctors in the past – Hippocrates, Joseph
Lister, Louis Pasteur, John Snow. In Ireland, Francis Rynd (inventor of the
hypodermic syringe), and fellow Wexford man, Arthur Leared (inventor of the binaural
stethoscope), are arguably our most famous medical men. But what of the lives
of the less prominent doctors who served their communities, counties, and
country, upheld their Hippocratic oath and were respected members of the
medical community? Thanks to material donated to the archives of the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland</a> (RCPI), as well as the work of academics and
students studying the history of medicine, and avid amateur historians, many
formerly forgotten members of the medical profession are now being rescued from
obscurity and having their stories told. This article will discuss one such
doctor, Neil John Blayney (1874-1919), and his career in Maryborough County
Infirmary, Queen’s County (now County Laois), made possible due largely to the
archival material donated to the RCPI by his grandson, Neil Brennan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="border: none; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">The County Infirmary</span></b></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;"></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-X5dDRPeNP8M/YJfvJAMbGMI/AAAAAAAAGIk/JlmvJAfHmBMmN2lacF_a2T4VcEACNuEugCLcBGAsYHQ/s1198/Image1.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="745" data-original-width="1198" height="199" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-X5dDRPeNP8M/YJfvJAMbGMI/AAAAAAAAGIk/JlmvJAfHmBMmN2lacF_a2T4VcEACNuEugCLcBGAsYHQ/w320-h199/Image1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span>Postcard image of Queen's County Infirmary <br />(early 20th Century)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Maryborough County Infirmary
was established in 1808.</span>[1]<span style="color: black;"> By 1836 it housed 868 patients, well above its original
capacity of fifty-five. Maryborough was something of an institutional town as
it comprised not only the Queen’s County Infirmary and dispensary but a
district lunatic asylum (now St. Fintan’s Hospital) and a county gaol (now
Portlaoise Prison) that contained eight prison wards (six for men, two for
women), nine solitary cells and a prison infirmary</span>.[2]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Neil John Blayney (often
referred to as “N J” in newspaper entries for the period) assumed the position
of Surgeon and Physician in 1900, after working as the resident surgeon in the
Mater Hospital in Dublin and the Mater Infirmorum, Belfast between 1897 and
1899. His appointment was complicated by a local conflict surrounding the
previous Physician, a Dr David Jacob’s retirement and his replacement by his
son, Dr W.G. Jacob. This appointment was challenged by the Infirmary
management, and, after a lengthy campaign, W.G. Jacob was dismissed by the
Queen’s County Board in October 1899 and replaced by Blayney</span>.[3]<span style="color: black;"> W.G. Jacob challenged this decision in the courts, with
Blayney named as co-defendant in the proceedings that ran until 20 February
1900, after which he was confirmed as the surgeon and physician for the
Infirmary. Blayney in 1904 described this situation as ‘a period of exceptional
difficulty and excitement’</span>.[4]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">References from his colleagues
prior to his appointment in Maryborough are glowing: ‘he was remarkable for
diligence, good conduct and ability’; ‘a highly qualified and competent
surgeon…deserving of any position of public trust’; ‘he will, I am confident,
be found eminently suitable and give entire satisfaction</span>’.[5]<span style="color: black;"> Blayney seems to have lived up to the reputation that
preceded him. Father Connolly, a member of the Infirmary Board claimed that
‘nobody could be more attentive or successful than Dr Blayney…in his treatment
of them</span>’.[6]<span style="color: black;"> At least one of his clients (Major J. Duffield) can be
seen to concur, writing to personally thank Dr Blayney and his staff for their
swiftness in dealing with ‘the child of a widow … in my charge … who contracted
scarlatina … thus preventing the spread of the infection’. As a show of
gratitude, Major Duffield donated funds towards the running of the Infirmary</span>.[7]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">“Body-snatching”, Suicide and Strychnine <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Blayney’s position carried
with it a slew of responsibilities, some similar to the work of a modern GP,
along with additional duties more conventional for the time. Of the latter,
there was his involvement in the training of Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses
during the First World War, giving classes for groups associated with the Irish
Volunteers, Cumann na mBan and the Irish Red Cross, and his work on promoting
information around the fight against tuberculosis (see below</span>).[8]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">His more traditional
responsibilities included being attendant to the last moments of many locals
and people in surrounding areas, as documented in reports of coroners’
inquests. </span>He assisted a workhouse doctor, Dr McCann in Mountmellick in
attempting to save a farmer who had attempted suicide by ‘slicing his own
throat’ according to news reports.[9] <span style="color: black;">He gave testimony in the case of Matthew Costigan, a
man who died of apparent alcohol-related injuries whose body had been returned
to the family by police without the Coroner’s permission, an action which could
have resulted in imprisonment for the person blamed for wrongful removal</span>.[10]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Perhaps the most curious of
these reports is that on the death of twenty-one-year-old Mary McEvoy. Mary,
who had been in apparently good health, died with such suddenness that Dr
Blayney at first suspected she may have been poisoned and suggested that the
Coroner order a post mortem. At the inquest, however, Blayney changed his
opinion, deciding that ‘the only poison could have been strychnine, and since
then I have concluded that it could not have been strychnine’. Nevertheless, a
post mortem was ordered, performed by Blayney and Dr W.G. Jacob, his one-time
opponent. In the end, a brain haemorrhage was cited as the cause of Mary’s
death</span>.[11]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Operating Theatre<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Given Dr Blayney’s surgical
background, it is no surprise that he was among those who advocated for the
addition of a proper operating theatre to the infirmary. Management Committee
reports reflect just how long and arduous this process was. The first request for
funds from the public appear in 1905; by 1907, the probable cost of £200 had
yet to be raised, and the theatre remained unsatisfactory (Blayney reportedly
said he would ‘be ashamed to show the place to another surgeon’); and the final
payment for the work on the theatre was made in April 1911</span>.[12]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Welcome Home Sanatorium<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;"></span></p><span style="color: black;">The late nineteenth century
and early decades of the twentieth century saw a marked rise in tuberculosis
cases. This epidemic had a higher mortality rate than that from other diseases
at the time and was attributed to one in every 8.5 deaths in Ireland</span>.[13]<span style="color: black;"> The establishment of sanatoria in Germany in the
mid-nineteenth century for the treatment of tuberculosis signalled the
beginning of a movement of specialised sanatoria building worldwide in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which had migrated to Ireland by the
1890s</span>.[14]<div><br /></div><div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HZzYm-7sYtY/YJgIQWGvQLI/AAAAAAAAGIs/KlyWCDqKpMYN4PDEdB7H0_VhMtdy2hTyQCLcBGAsYHQ/s757/image3.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="521" data-original-width="757" height="220" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HZzYm-7sYtY/YJgIQWGvQLI/AAAAAAAAGIs/KlyWCDqKpMYN4PDEdB7H0_VhMtdy2hTyQCLcBGAsYHQ/w320-h220/image3.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span>Opening Ceremony of Queen's County Sanatorium<br />(Dr Blayney situation on balcony on furthest right)</span></td></tr></tbody></table>By the time the Queen’s County
Sanatorium opened in April 1911, Dr Blayney had already been very involved in
providing the public with advice and information. In 1909, during a lecture he
delivered at Maryborough, he impressed upon the attendees the dangers of
spitting, how decaying teeth could leave people vulnerable to tuberculosis, and
advised them to support new legislation around the inspection of dairies.[15] It appears that immediately following the Sanatorium’s
opening, Dr Blayney provided his services free of charge. However, by 1912,
developments under the provisions of the Prevention of Tuberculosis (Ireland)
Act required a full-time Superintendent to be appointed. At a meeting in June
1912, concerns were raised by the Infirmary Committee that it could not afford
to pay a full-time doctor dedicated to the sanatorium at the suggested salary
of between £300 and £500 per annum. The discussion also raised the question of
whether or not Dr Blayney could be allowed to hold both his current role and
that of Sanatorium Superintendent; Dr W.G. Jacob had been removed and replaced
by Dr Blayney for holding multiple positions, and so it was felt that Dr
Blayney would have to give up his private practice in order to be eligible to
fill the role at the Sanatorium. The discussion concluded without any decision
reportedly being reached.[16] As shown in material in the RCPI Collection, Blayney
continued his education in tuberculosis treatment throughout July of that year,
attending multiple postgraduate lectures on the subject, including one
organised by the Women’s National Health Association.[17] Just four months later, in November 1912, Dr Blayney was
officially appointed as the Superintendent of Queen’s County Sanatorium,
running unopposed and voted in unanimously, making his recent postgraduate
activities particularly timely.[18] Unfortunately, his stewardship was cut short when the
Sanatorium was destroyed by a fire later that month and never rebuilt.</div><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Career Conflicts – Local to National<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;"></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RuxXPdi5ppE/YJgJBznGC0I/AAAAAAAAGI0/OEq2cMHt8OQbYCa8tBqVrd8pID-DVUOwwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1189/Image2.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1189" data-original-width="770" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RuxXPdi5ppE/YJgJBznGC0I/AAAAAAAAGI0/OEq2cMHt8OQbYCa8tBqVrd8pID-DVUOwwCLcBGAsYHQ/w207-h320/Image2.jpg" width="207" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span>Dr N.J. Blayney outside <br />Maryborough Infirmary</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="color: black;">Dr Blayney’s professional
outlook seems to have been defined by two things – practical diligence and
strong opinions. As a result, he was involved in his share of professional
conflicts. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">In 1908, a dispute was
reported between Dr Blayney and other members of the Management Committee over
the appointment of nurses. After the resignation of the two former infirmary
nurses some months prior, an advertisement was published to fill the vacant
positions. Dr Blayney had, without notifying the Board, changed the
advertisement’s wording so that it required nurses to have ‘the necessary
certificates, as directed by the Local Government Board’. When pressed on why
this was necessary when many nurses in private institutions were able to
practice without these certificates, Dr Blayney was reported to have said that
‘for the status and dignity of the institution, no nurse should be under the
standard laid down by the local government boards’, and that if possible, he
would prefer an even higher standard. The Committee Chairman in particular
pushed back against this and argued that they should proceed to elect new
nurses based on the previous, unaltered advertisement. Despite Dr Blayney’s protest,
the election of new nurses was postponed, and the advertisement re-printed with
his qualification clause removed</span>.[19]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;">A larger conflict emerged between Dr Blayney and some other
doctors in the area – including Dr T. F. Higgins, the county Coroner, who was a
rival applicant for the Medical Advisership position Dr Blayney eventually took
up (under the Insurance Act of 1911) in July 1913.[20] On 30 July, Higgins and ten other area doctors co-signed a letter expressing
their dissatisfaction with Blayney taking up the post: ‘We express the
strongest disapproval of … Dr. Blayney … accepting Medical Advisership … and we
call on said doctor to resign, and failing to do so, we decline to have any
medical consultations with these officials until they have resigned.’<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 100%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span>
<span style="color: black;">This caused some severe issues for Dr Blayney – the
doctors refused to send patients to the Infirmary, or to supply assistance to
him on operations, leading to their cancellation. One patient, according to
members of the Management Committee, was kept in hospital ‘and fasting’ for a
week without being sent for operation because Dr Blayney could not get any of
the doctors to assist him. The gravity of the matter was summed up by one of
the Committee Members: ‘they have a grievance in legislation, and they want the
poor, infirm and suffering people of the county to suffer by that</span>’.[22]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">The biggest conflict of Dr
Blayney’s career came in November 1903, when he resigned from the Queen’s
County Branch of the Irish Medical Association. In a letter to Dr Dunne of the
Queen’s County Medical Association, printed in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster Express</i> and elsewhere, Dr Blayney affected his resignation
by harshly criticising the Association’s motives for demanding £200 per year
for all dispensary medical men and four guineas a week for locums, claiming it
showed an ‘evident tendency … by … the association to try and drag the
dispensary system into the control of the Civil Service’. He further criticised
the Association’s election policy for dispensary doctors, citing a case in
Ballyroan in which of the two candidates who presented, only one was qualified
for the position. He seemingly insinuated that this candidate was prevented by
the Association from presenting himself and warned that if this were allowed to
happen elsewhere ‘we would have medical men, appointed by the guardians more or
less against their will, who might not be suitable to fill their position, nor
might their election be approved of by the majority of the people’. Dr Blayney
finished by saying:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; margin-left: 36pt; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">It does not resound to the
credit of … the association … when we find them trying to prevent the
representatives of the people from exercising the authority vested in them.</span>[23]</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">The version published in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster Leader </i>was accompanied by
commentary that suggests Dr Blayney’s letter was ‘bound to exercise a profound
influence on the course of the medical controversy’</span>.[24] <span style="color: black;">This certainly seems to have been the case, considering
the level of backlash towards Dr Blayney from his colleagues. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">In the 14 November issue of
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster Express, </i>Dr Higgins
criticised Blayney’s worries about dispensaries being put in control of the
Civil Service by directly referencing his ascension to the position in
Maryborough: ‘Under the civil service system, the best man should be appointed …
according to merit. Is that objectionable to Dr Blayney? If so, it means that
gratitude to those, who, under a different system, placed him in the County
Infirmary, has prejudiced his mind.’<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 100%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">Blayney’s act of protest was
dealt a further blow by a letter to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Irish
Times </i>from Secretary of the Irish Medical Association, Dr Thomas Gick
(reprinted in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Express</i>). The
letter stated that despite Dr Higgins’ claim that he had been crucial in
formulating the policies of the Queen’s County Branch, Dr Blayney had never
actually been a member of the Irish Medical Association, and therefore ‘could
not resign that which was not in his possession’</span>.[26]</p>
<div style="border: none; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black;">This piece of information
served to make for even more cutting responses. Dr L.F. Rowan laid into Dr
Blayney with particular vitriol, criticising his ‘mental attitude’, calling his
resignation from a position he did not hold a ‘rare psychological phenomenon’
and suggesting his letter contained ‘a profound degree of mental torpor or
hibernation that almost disarms criticism’.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 100%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span><span style="color: black;"> Dr Rowan even went so far as to mock Blayney’s actions in
quitting over policy for dispensary doctors: ‘It is a pity he is not a poor
dispensary doctor, because he can never have opportunity of showing the faith
that is in him by resigning himself.’</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 100%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-IE;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="color: black;">That Dr Blayney’s career and
relationship with his colleagues, particularly Dr Higgins, continued to operate
successfully after these clashes suggests that the assessment of Blayney by his
peers, infirmary colleagues and patients as an upstanding and consummate
professional was almost certainly an accurate one. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Simone Doyle</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal">Simone Doyle is a student on UCD's <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240">MA in History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a>.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Acknowledgements <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black;">I would like to thank the
following people:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black;">Dr Catherine Cox for her
support, kindness, and guidance throughout my studies. To Dr Elizabeth Mullins
for inviting me to lecture sessions and talks relevant to my research. Mr Neil
Brennan for his insightful talk about his grandfather Dr Blayney and for lending
his permission to use his photographs in this blog. To Ms Harriet Wheelock of
the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/">RCPI</a> for supplying me with the archival material used. To Dr Alice Mauger
for editing, notes and advice on the piece. And finally, to my partner and my
mother for their constant support over the course of my studies.</span></p><div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_gjdgxs"></a><span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[1] </span><span style="color: black;">Samuel Lewis, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland</i> (London, 1837), Accessed at: </span><a href="https://www.libraryireland.com/topog/M/Maryborough-East-Maryborough-Queens.php"><span style="color: #0563c1;">https://www.libraryireland.com/topog/M/Maryborough-East-Maryborough-Queens.php</span></a><span style="color: black;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[2] </span><span><span style="color: black;">Lewis, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[3] </span><span><span style="color: black;">Neil J. Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening Dusty Boxes: The Life of a County Surgeon in Edwardian Ireland</i>
(Carrigtohill, 2019), 27-8.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_30j0zll"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[4] </span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nationalist
and Leinster Times, </i>1 October 1904.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_1fob9te"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[5] </span><span style="color: black;">M.A. Boyd to N.J. Blayney, 11 November
1898 (RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 63); Charles Coppinger to N. J. Blayney, 20
November 1898 (RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 64); Daniel McDonnell to N.J.
Blayney, 30 November 1899 (RCPI Blayney Collection, Item 73).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_3znysh7"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[6] </span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nationalist
and Leinster Times, </i>1 October 1904.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_2et92p0"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[7] </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Leinster
Express, </span></i><span style="color: black;">30 March 1912.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_tyjcwt"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[8] </span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>2 June 1917; Brennan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opening
Dusty Boxes</i>, 52.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a name="_3dy6vkm"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[9]</span> <i>Westmeath Independent, </i>25 Nov 1911.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[10] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>27 April 1912.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[11] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>22 March 1902.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[12] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nationalist
and Leinster Times, </i>28 October 1905; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>1 December 1907; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nationalist
and Leinster Times, </i>1 April 1911.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[13] </span><span><span style="color: black;">Alan Francis Carthy, The Treatment of
Tuberculosis in Ireland from the 1890s to the 1970s: A Case Study of Medical
Care in Leinster (PhD Thesis, National University of Ireland Maynooth, 2015),
1. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[14] </span><span><span style="color: black;">Carthy, Treatment of Tuberculosis, 25,
49.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn15" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[15] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>2<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>February 1909.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn16" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[16] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>29 June 1912.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn17" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_1t3h5sf"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[17]</span><span style="color: black;"> RCPI Blayney Collection, Items 36, 95.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<div id="edn18" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_4d34og8"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[18]</span> <span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express, </i>9 November 1912.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<div id="edn19" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_2s8eyo1"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[19] </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Leinster
Express, </span></i><span style="color: black;">3 October 1908.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<div id="edn20" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a name="_3rdcrjn"></a><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[20]</span></span> Brennan, <i>Opening Dusty Boxes</i>, 44.<o:p></o:p></p>
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<div id="edn21" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[21]</span></span> Dr E.F. Hogan, Dr T.F. Higgins <i>et al</i> to N.J. Blayney, 30 July 1913 (RCPI
Blayney Collection, Item 42).<o:p></o:p></p>
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<div id="edn22" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[22] </span><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Leinster Express, </span></i><span style="color: black;">31
January 1914.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
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<div id="edn23" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><a name="_26in1rg"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[23] </span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Express </i>7 November 1903.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<div id="edn24" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[24] </span><span><span style="color: black;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leinster
Leader </i>7 November 1903.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
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<div id="edn25" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[25]</span></span> <i>Leinster
Express, </i>14 November, 1903.<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<div id="edn26" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-border-shadow: yes; mso-padding-alt: 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt 31.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[26]</span><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;"> Leinster
Express, </span></i><span style="color: black;">14 November
1903.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
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<div id="edn27" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[27]</span></span> <i>Leinster
Leader</i>, 14 November 1903.<o:p></o:p></p>
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<div id="edn28" style="mso-element: endnote;"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">[28]</span></span> <i>Leinster
Leader</i>, 14 November 1903.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div></div>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-7716285404445095532020-07-01T16:45:00.000+01:002020-07-01T16:45:25.980+01:00The Historian’s Kaleidoscope – Making Sense of Medical History in Times of a Pandemic<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>In this blog post, <a href="https://people.ucd.ie/claas.kirchhelle">Dr Claas Kirchhelle</a>, Lecturer of the History of Medicine at University College Dublin (Wellcome Trust University Award) and Fellow of the Oxford Martin School, urges medical historians to critically reflect on the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for their field.</i></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Trying to make sense of COVID-19 is to look through a kaleidoscope. Within its brief existence, the virus has revealed the incredible complexity of interspecies relationships, economic interdependencies, health system designs, international relations, the many fallouts of the climate emergency, and differing cultural perceptions of disease and biomedicine. It has also unleashed a storm of attempts by historians, social scientists, and public commentators to make sense of the present against the backdrop of previous epidemics and pandemics.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">From late January 2020 onwards, academic journals, websites, blogs, and media outlets saw a burst of contributions </span><a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2004361" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">analysing</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> the current pandemic in light of </span><a href="https://newseu.cgtn.com/news/2020-02-28/How-does-COVID-19-compare-to-previous-pandemics--Or7LL5K3VC/index.html" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">earlier ones</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">, commenting on exacerbated </span><a href="https://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/covid-19-and-health-inequality/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">social</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> and </span><a href="https://theconversation.com/epidemics-have-often-led-to-discrimination-against-minorities-this-time-is-no-different-140189" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">racial</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> inequalities, cultural </span><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-shutting-down-chinese-wet-markets-could-be-a-terrible-mistake-130625" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">biases</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> in attributing causes and solutions, the </span><a href="https://www.journal-psychoanalysis.eu/coronavirus-and-philosophers/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">biopolitics</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> of lockdown, and </span><a href="https://www.wired.com/story/opinion-with-covid-19-tech-is-making-history-repeat-itself/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">hopes</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> for a </span><a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2008512" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">unified drive</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> for a cure. Initial responses were soon complemented by a second layer of debates about how far one pandemic could be </span><a href="https://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/covid-19-when-history-has-no-lessons/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">compared</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> to another, </span><a href="https://critinq.wordpress.com/2020/04/10/ground-zero-empiricism/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">ground-zero empiricism</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">, and whether </span><a href="http://somatosphere.net/2020/epidemic-philosophy.html/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">anything meaningful</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> could be said before COVID-19 itself had become history.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">As a medical historian, I followed debates with a mix of fascination and exhaustion. Holed up in my apartment, I was taking it in turns with my partner – also an academic – to care for our confused toddler while trying to meet funding and publication deadlines. In between writing, zoom calls, and potty training, I was, however, struck by the way that many exchanges were missing their mark. The version of history that was being debated was often too grand or too diminutive to adequately reflect the discipline’s value for public debates and decision-making.<br /><br />Critics were of course right to highlight that it was too early to provide grand analyses and wrong to make facile comparisons to earlier pandemics. Nobody can accurately predict how interactions between this novel pathogen and its human hosts will evolve and it will likely take decades to retrospectively unpick the complex biosocial interactions that brought us here. However, history is also not as speechless as some seem to imply. While I would distrust anyone proposing a definite analysis of COVID-19, I would be similarly wary of those waiting for the elusive point when current events have ‘safely’ become history.<br /><br />The COVID-19 pandemic is a biological and social event that is the result of contingent emergence. However, it is playing out within the structural constraints of a human and environmental playing field that was shaped over decades – if not centuries. Historians are uniquely placed to appreciate both the contingency of SARS-CoV-2 and to analyse its pandemic playing field. The relevance of such analyses for decision-making and public discourse is great. I have plenty of colleagues whose excellent work on vaccines, public and global health, infectious disease, mental health, and civil emergencies makes them ideally placed to provide critical context for <a href="https://www.davidedgerton.org/blog/2020/4/18/the-governments-response-to-covid-19-and-brexit-are-intimately-connectednbsp">varying policy</a> responses. Scholars of the medical humanities can also highlight <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01812-9">implicit biases and shaky data</a> underpinning some of the epidemiological, behavioural, and economic <a href="http://somatosphere.net/forumpost/model-evidence-covid-19/">models</a> guiding current policy. By looking back at previous pandemic or epidemic events, some may even be able to make educated guesses about likely social flashpoints, governance problems, finance bottlenecks, and ethical dilemmata. None of the colleagues I know would make the claim that historical analysis holds universal answers. However, I think that many of them would be comfortable saying that decontextualized policymaking and public debates can be just as flawed – and that expertise from the medical humanities should be represented in official expert bodies. <br /><br />Reflecting on my own work on antibiotics, laboratory surveillance, and infectious disease control, I have become keenly aware of the kaleidoscopic qualities of the current crisis. All of my research fields have been affected. COVID-19 has accelerated many of the structural constraints that have long prevented equitable and unbiased health provision, international coordination, and global solidarity. However, it has also provided interesting points of departure. <br /><br />Writing about change, challenges, and prospects in the areas I know best has aided my own historical sense-making and prompted useful exchanges with other disciplines. Together with colleagues from the biomedical and environmental sciences, I have drawn on historical precedents to warn about the <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/antibiotic-resistance-could-lead-to-more-covid-19-deaths/">likely rise of antibiotic use</a> to deal with bacterial superinfections and resulting selection for antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, we were also keenly aware that the unprecedented global sharing of scientific information about COVID-19, formation of patent pools, and mobilisation of public funds may also point to new solutions for the long-standing <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/laninf/PIIS1473-3099(19)30552-3.pdf">‘empty pipeline’ problem</a> for antibiotic development. With collaborators from the social sciences, I have reflected on the chequered past of human infection studies in accelerating vaccine development but also exploiting marginalised and colonial populations. We warned that the race for effective SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and the growing tendency to ‘offshore’ trials necessitated a <a href="https://medium.com/oxford-university/challenging-circumstances-we-need-international-guidelines-for-human-infection-studies-688051c869f9">new international framework</a> for infection studies. I was also honoured to reflect on how contagious disease can bring out the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/science-blog/covid-19-insights-history-0">best</a> and <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/arts-blog/covid-19-aftermath-insights-history">worst</a> in societies with my former PhD supervisor. Interviews with talented and genuinely interested journalists have also allowed me to stress how the history of drug and vaccine development makes it clear that <a href="https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/81273378">ensuring equitable access</a> must be at the forefront of current decision-making.<br /><br />None of these points are particularly revolutionary and I do not pretend to be able to offer a comprehensive interpretation of an unfolding global crisis from the desk in my bedroom. It is, however, clear to me that COVID-19 is rapidly changing the fields I study and the way I see their history. Although I may only be able to see individual pieces of this vast kaleidoscope of change, the time to critically reflect on these changes started in January 2020. To publish these reflections is to stimulate debate, add a critical longitudinal and structural take to public sense-making, and – in my case – to optimistically push for some good things to come out of this global event.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Claas Kirchhelle</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr Claas
Kirchhelle is a </span><a href="https://people.ucd.ie/claas.kirchhelle" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">Lecturer in
the History of Medicine</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> at University College Dublin’s School of History.
His research explores the global history of antibiotics, infection control, and
the microbial environment. Supported by a </span><a href="https://wellcome.ac.uk/grant-funding/people-and-projects/grants-awarded/enslaved-viruses-bacteriophages-infectious-disease" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">Wellcome
Trust University Award</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">, he is currently writing an interdisciplinary
history of global infectious disease surveillance after 1920. Claas studied
history at the Universities of Munich (MA, 2012), Chicago (MA, 2011), and
Oxford (DPhil, 2016). He has published across the humanities and biomedical
sciences and was awarded the University of Oxford’s 2016 Dev Family Prize for
the best dissertation in the history of medicine and the 2020 ICOHTEC Turriano
Prize for </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554200/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><i>Pyrrhic
Progress. Antibiotics in Anglo-American Food Production</i></a><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"> </i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">(Rutgers
University Press)</span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">. </i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A new monograph on the history of British animal
welfare science, activism, and politics is forthcoming with Palgrave Macmilan
(2021). Claas has extensive experience in public engagement and broadcasting
and co-curated the award-winning </span><a href="https://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/backfromthedead/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">Back from the Dead</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
(2016/2017) and </span><a href="https://typhoidland.org/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">Typhoidland</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> (2020/2021)
exhibitions on penicillin and the past, present, and future of typhoid control.</span></div>
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UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comUniversity College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3067494 -6.221033599999999333.8004629 -47.5296276 72.8130359 35.0875604tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-8322617761376315302020-03-04T09:45:00.000+00:002020-03-04T09:45:33.248+00:00Now Enrolling for 2020/2021: MA in the History of Welfare and Medicine in Society, School of History, UCD<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In this blog post, we introduce UCD’s <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">MA in the History of Welfare and Medicine in Society</a> and look back at the work and achievements of some
former students.</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Academic Year 2020/2021</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Graduate
Taught (level 9 nfq, credits 90)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Qf13XK1YSyE/XlZcvmHcHxI/AAAAAAAAC5M/iUTWh8G7ghMmIrdxSmQPvTAyn1n1GkdeACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/UCD%2BMA%2BPic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="320" data-original-width="305" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Qf13XK1YSyE/XlZcvmHcHxI/AAAAAAAAC5M/iUTWh8G7ghMmIrdxSmQPvTAyn1n1GkdeACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/UCD%2BMA%2BPic.jpg" width="304" /></a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Medicine, illness and welfare occupy a central place in all our lives.
The <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240#" target="_blank">MA in the History of Welfare and Medicine in Society</a> is designed to enable
you to understand the place of medicine and welfare in society and history
(c.1750-1980) and engage with critical debates through various media including
film, literature, and art, amongst others.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The programme explores the main trends within welfare and medical
history from social history, gender history, post-colonial history to
individual experiences of poverty, and of illness throughout history. You will
explore how medicine and welfare regimes and policies overlapped with
culturally constructed conceptions of femininity and masculinity, race and
ethnicity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The modules are taught through seminars and you will develop expertise
in presenting, analytical thinking, effective communication, and writing with
clarity and precision. You will also partake in a lively seminar series and
benefit from a vibrant postgraduate research community.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The dissertation, at the core the MA, allows you to engage your own research-based interests. </span></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-k6dRS3QnPLc/XlZcvnL8RqI/AAAAAAAAC5c/nft10PjWpvUrNHUm2M1-sgKMBfd1sFH5gCEwYBhgL/s1600/UCD%2BCHOMI%2BPicture.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="141" data-original-width="320" height="140" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-k6dRS3QnPLc/XlZcvnL8RqI/AAAAAAAAC5c/nft10PjWpvUrNHUm2M1-sgKMBfd1sFH5gCEwYBhgL/s320/UCD%2BCHOMI%2BPicture.jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Your fellow students will be from diverse academic backgrounds and the
MA is popular among healthcare professionals keen to understand the historical
contexts that shaped current practices and systems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The MA has a reputation for excellence and is taught be lecturers with
international profiles in the field. </span><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Why do this MA?</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Graduates have secured employment in the fields of media, education,
politics and in private and public sector management and policy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Graduates have also proceeded to PhD studies at Irish, British, and
European institutions, securing prestigious external funding.</span><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></b> </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_3KtJ3fLqNU/XlZen_4kkfI/AAAAAAAAC5o/r3H9lKXxtycGF3xuhyTNT4Qb3vU3DNW_wCEwYBhgL/s1600/CatherineCox.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" data-original-height="180" data-original-width="180" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_3KtJ3fLqNU/XlZen_4kkfI/AAAAAAAAC5o/r3H9lKXxtycGF3xuhyTNT4Qb3vU3DNW_wCEwYBhgL/s1600/CatherineCox.jpg" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Assoc Prof Catherine Cox, Director,<br /><a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a></span></td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Further Details</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Please see the course description for the </span><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;" target="_blank">MA in the History of Welfare and Medicine in Society</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> at UCD Graduates Studies.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Former MA Students</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In 2013 David Durnin contributed a post to this blog about <a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2013/04/irish-doctors-in-first-world-war-by_10.html" target="_blank">Irish doctors in the first world war</a>. A former MA student, David completed his PhD in history at the UCD Centre for the History of
Medicine in Ireland (2014) and received several grants and awards for his work
including an Irish Research Council postgraduate scholarship and the Royal
College of Physicians of Ireland History of Medicine Research Award. David has published
the following books:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-njpsJye14Xo/XlZhimee39I/AAAAAAAAC50/mvP0M1k72VYwOWACR1kYGJaZQYG6db82wCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/DavidDurninBook.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="554" data-original-width="392" height="200" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-njpsJye14Xo/XlZhimee39I/AAAAAAAAC50/mvP0M1k72VYwOWACR1kYGJaZQYG6db82wCLcBGAsYHQ/s200/DavidDurninBook.jpg" width="140" /></a>
<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">David Durnin, <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030179588"><i>The Irish Medical Profession and the First World War</i></a> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).</span></li>
</ul>
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<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">David Durnin and Ian Miller (eds), </span><a href="https://manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719097850/" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;" target="_blank"><i>Medicine, Health and Irish Experiences of Conflict, 1914–45</i></a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i> </i>(Manchester University Press, 2016). </span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Another former MA student David Kilgannon published a post for us about <a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2015/10/aids-and-history.html" target="_blank">AIDS and history in Ireland</a> in 2015. </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">David recently completed a Wellcome Trust funded PhD at the </span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/colleges-and-schools/arts-social-sciences-and-celtic-studies/history-philosophy/disciplines-centres/history/" target="_blank">Department of History, NUI Galway</a>, </i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">exploring</span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
</i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">changing responses to those with an intellectual disability in Ireland in
the period 1947-84.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Our community of graduate scholars continues to grow. Posts by our most recent graduates, based on their MA research include:</span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Annika Liger, <a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2019/09/whos-to-blame-inquests-into-convict.html" target="_blank">‘Who’s to Blame?: Inquests into Convict Deaths in Mountjoy, c.1868-1900’</a>.</span></li>
</ul>
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<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Natalie Baldwin, <a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2019/11/a-prescription-for-change-training.html" target="_blank">‘A Prescription for Change: Training a Doctor in Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Ireland’</a>. </span></li>
</ul>
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<br />UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comUniversity College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3067494 -6.221033599999999327.7847149 -47.5296276 78.8287839 35.0875604tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-81307013442287136822020-01-06T14:41:00.000+00:002020-03-04T09:44:38.965+00:00Irish Medical Responses to Problem Drinking from Institutionalisation to Public Health: Part II<div style="text-align: left;">
<i style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In the second instalment of this two-part
special,</span></i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;"> <a href="https://people.ucd.ie/alice.mauger"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dr Alice Mauger</i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, Wellcome
Trust Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland </a>explores the changing approaches of medical practitioners and
psychiatrists to problem drinking in Ireland since 1922.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2019/06/medical-response-to-problem-drinking.html" target="_blank">Read Part I here</a>.</i></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">After the First World War, medical interest in the “drink question” began to wane and political barometers swung strongly towards attempts to limit drinking. Among the
most infamous of these tactics was the United States’ prohibition experiment,
which resulted in a nationwide ban on drinking from 1920 until 1933. Meanwhile,
the newly formed Irish Free State government lost little time overhauling
liquor regulations, restricting pub opening hours and decreasing the availability
of pub licenses. While this demonstrated state concern about both levels of drunkenness and the money being spent on drink, t</span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">he same government was slow to reflect on the treatment of alcoholism. </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-I16acoEIxl8/XlaS_3FfhII/AAAAAAAAC6A/9hrjRLRjSYc6Pnq_YrJkdziQxvlZ9Dm0ACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Prohibition.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="455" data-original-width="587" height="248" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-I16acoEIxl8/XlaS_3FfhII/AAAAAAAAC6A/9hrjRLRjSYc6Pnq_YrJkdziQxvlZ9Dm0ACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Prohibition.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-align: start;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">New York City Deputy Police Commissioner </span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">watching agents </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">pour liquor into sewer following a raid during </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">the </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">height </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">of </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">Prohibition. Source: United States Library of </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">Congress's </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">Prints </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: start;">and Photographs division.</span></td></tr>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A New 'Disease View'</span></span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Beginning in the United States, a new ‘disease view’ of alcohol addiction emerged after the abolition of prohibition in 1933. The fundamental difference between this new medical concept and its nineteenth-century predecessor was the perception of drink itself. While the earlier interpretation saw alcohol as an inherently addictive substance, posing a risk for everyone, the post-prohibition version portrayed drink as harmless for most but with the potential to cause disease in a minority of vulnerable or ‘defective’ individuals – labelled alcoholics.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In
an era of mounting medical concerns over immunisation, tuberculosis and infant
mortality, accompanied by the general rise of preventative medicine, this ‘disease
view’ of alcoholism did not take hold in Ireland until after the Second World
War. In the meantime, there was a marked decrease in alcohol consumption in
Ireland during the first half of the twentieth century.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Alcoholism
and Mental Hospitals</span></span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In 1945 new legislation broke ground, giving
statutory recognition to the role played by mental health services in supplying
addiction treatment. The </span><a href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1945/act/19/enacted/en/print.html" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;">Mental
Treatment Act, 1945</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> specifically provided for the admission of ‘addicts’, including
those addicted to alcohol, to mental hospitals. This </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">signalled growing acceptance of alcoholism as a disease requiring treatment.</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">It also cemented what was already a reality for the Irish psychiatric services. </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">As mentioned in a </span><a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2019/06/medical-response-to-problem-drinking.html" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;">previous
post</a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">, Irish mental hospitals had been principal treatment centres for
problem drinkers since the nineteenth century and by 1900, 1 in 10 admissions were attributed
to ‘intemperance in drink’. </span><br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In spite of these developments, it was not
until the 1960s that psychiatrists began openly advocating the disease theory. This
decade also saw the establishment of the first specialist wards for alcoholism in
Dublin psychiatric hospitals like St John of God’s in Stillorgan and St
Patrick’s Hospital on James’ Street. Concurrently, there was a marked rise in
the number of alcohol-related admissions to psychiatric hospitals from 561 in
1958 to 1,964 in 1967.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span></sup> It is uncertain whether these figures represented an increase in the actual numbers of alcohol-related cases presenting or in the numbers being identified. What is clear, however, is that b</span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">y this point the role played by psychiatric services for alcoholism in Ireland
had crystallised and psychiatrists had apparently grown more comfortable with
this function.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-p1AdMCgkOqI/XlaTAUkLn6I/AAAAAAAAC6U/jZekd9SwjbMJKvS8l6VhwK_KMzU1na3JQCEwYBhgL/s1600/StPats.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><img border="0" data-original-height="317" data-original-width="422" height="240" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-p1AdMCgkOqI/XlaTAUkLn6I/AAAAAAAAC6U/jZekd9SwjbMJKvS8l6VhwK_KMzU1na3JQCEwYBhgL/s320/StPats.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Source: Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr John G. Cooney</span></span></b></h3>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Possibly the most avid individual advocate of
the new disease view was Dr John G. Cooney, a consultant psychiatrist at St
Patrick’s Hospital who became one of Ireland’s leading authorities on the
psychiatric treatment of alcoholism.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></sup></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> Speaking
at the North Dublin Medical Club Symposium in 1963, Cooney urged his medical
colleagues to accept the disease view:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Too often
doctors have allowed their view of alcoholics to be distorted by emotional
factors. Commonly their own subconscious fears regarding alcoholism have been
projected on to their alcoholic patients. If one is to treat alcoholism successfully
whether in hospital of in general practice one must feel as well as believe
that the alcoholic is ill and suffering from a disease just as surely as a
diabetic is suffering from his excess blood sugar.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">3</span></sup></span></blockquote>
</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Resistance to the Disease View</span></span></b></h3>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The theory’s central tenet, however, did not
sit well with many Irish commentators. After all, the premise that alcoholism
constituted an inherent ‘flaw’ in the individual was a difficult pill to
swallow in a country with increasing psychiatric admissions for that very
disorder. Illustrating this point in 1962, a consultant psychiatrist at St John
of God’s, Dr Desmond McCarthy, complained:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">One of the
great difficulties in this country was that alcoholism was not accepted as an
illness. It still carried a social stigma, a rather foolish way of looking at a
serious disease. The basic illness was often hidden under other names for
face-saving thus there were no reliable figures for alcoholism.</span><sup style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">4</span></sup></blockquote>
</div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Evidence of a persistent stigma around
alcoholism in Ireland was produced as late as 1969. Reporting on an alcoholism
seminar for general practitioners in Waterford that May, the <i>Irish Times</i>’
medical correspondent, David Nowlan wrote of the survival within the Irish
medical profession of ‘medieval attitudes’. Nowlan described how one general
practitioner had stood up at the end of the seminar and ‘stated quite
categorically that alcoholism was a sin in the face of God and against God’s
works deserving of only censure and moralistic indignation’.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">5</span></sup><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Social and Cultural Factors</span></span></b></h3>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">By the 1970s, psychiatrists were devoting some
space to the impact of social and cultural change in Ireland. According to Cooney,
modernisation had brought with it a variety of new factors which were now
influencing Irish drinking habits. These included increasing social mobility in
rural Ireland leading to more money being spent on drink; the replacement of
dimly-lit, all-male pubs with brightly-lit bars and singing lounges catering to
younger married couples; expense account drinking in the cities following the
patterns of London and New York; and the centrality of alcohol on all social
occasions and in many business transactions. Cooney’s observations were not
unfounded. The 1960s had seen a massive economic boom, resulting in greater
disposable income and a dramatic climb in expenditure on drink. Inevitably,
Cooney argued, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="_Hlk9852738"></a></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">‘all this exposure to alcohol has led, in the
opinion of many workers in the field, to an increase in alcoholism</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">’.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">6</span></sup></span></span></span><br />
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></b>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xNEq4sNHdvI/XlaS_zRueJI/AAAAAAAAC6U/ri_R9WWZ8Ww7Q3ENN4MJ4zPq-9TuMQnmgCEwYBhgL/s1600/PHAB.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="572" data-original-width="1090" height="207" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xNEq4sNHdvI/XlaS_zRueJI/AAAAAAAAC6U/ri_R9WWZ8Ww7Q3ENN4MJ4zPq-9TuMQnmgCEwYBhgL/s400/PHAB.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Campaign Poster for Public Health (Alcohol) Bill, 2015.<br /> With thanks to Alcohol Action Ireland</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A Public Health Approach to Alcohol</span></span></b></h3>
<div>
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
</div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Cooney’s concerns about increasing exposure to
alcohol were illustrative of those in Ireland and elsewhere. The 1970s marked a
turning point in attitudes towards drink in many
countries. By now, epidemiologists were linking rising per capita consumption </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">with a concurrent growth in alcohol-related harm, including deaths from liver cirrhosis and convictions for drunkenness and drink-driving. Alcohol therefore came to be presented, once again, </span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">as a problem for <i>everyone</i> rather than a minority deemed predisposed to alcoholism. Designated the ‘public health’
perspective, this approach gradually supplanted the disease concept. Yet, in
spite of the efforts of its proponents, and its acceptance and promotion by the
<a href="https://www.who.int/about/who-we-are" target="_blank">World Health Organisation</a>, until quite recently governments have been reluctant
to impose corresponding legislation. </span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The passing of Ireland’s <a href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2018/act/24/enacted/en/print.html">Public
Health (Alcohol) Act</a> in 2018 therefore represents a landmark in alcohol
policy. It also reveals an unprecedented unity among medical responses to
problem drinking today. Internationally, it has received strong backing from
leading public health organisations and in Ireland, the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland</a> have
partnered with national charity, <a href="https://alcoholireland.ie/">Alcohol
Action Ireland</a>, to form the <a href="https://alcoholireland.ie/campaigns/aha/">Alcohol Health Alliance Ireland</a>,
for whom a central aim has been to support the Bill. Meanwhile, the President
of the <a href="https://www.irishpsychiatry.ie/">College of Psychiatrists in
Ireland</a>, Dr John Hillery, stated in November 2017: <span style="background: white; color: black;">‘the College supports the bill in its
entirety, not a diluted version, to protect the mental health of our society’.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">7</span></sup></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.1111px;"><sup></sup></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.1111px;"><sup></sup></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="background: white; color: black;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="background: white; color: black;"></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<h3>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Alice
Mauger</span></span></b></h3>
</div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QkyNASNSXQc/XlaS_7rUXbI/AAAAAAAAC6U/ODg6itV1tTAm_KVjdYe26rrqBkiypteJwCEwYBhgL/s1600/Alice.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="292" data-original-width="219" height="200" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QkyNASNSXQc/XlaS_7rUXbI/AAAAAAAAC6U/ODg6itV1tTAm_KVjdYe26rrqBkiypteJwCEwYBhgL/s200/Alice.png" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dr Alice Mauger</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr Alice Mauger is a Postdoctoral Research
Fellow at the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/">Centre for the History of
Medicine in Ireland</a> in the School of History, University College Dublin.
Her research project <a href="https://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2017/04/alcohol-medicine-and-irish-society.html">'Alcohol
Medicine and Irish Society, c. 1890-1970'</a> is funded by the <a href="https://wellcome.ac.uk/">Wellcome Trust</a>. The project explores the
evolution of medicine's role in framing and treating alcoholism in Ireland. It
aims to make a significant contribution to the medical humanities, exploring
historical sources to better understand and contextualise Irish society's
relationship with alcohol. She was awarded a PhD by UCD in 2014 for her thesis
which examined public, voluntary and private asylum care in nineteenth-century
Ireland. Prior to this she completed the MA programme on the Social and
Cultural History of Medicine at the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in
Ireland, UCD. Both her MA and PhD were funded by the Wellcome Trust. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">She has published on the history of psychiatry
and alcoholism in Ireland including '"</span></span><a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-27275-3_2">The Holy
War Against Alcohol": Alcoholism, Medicine and Psychiatry in Ireland, c.
1890–1921’</a> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">and </span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">a full-length monograph:</span><i style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;"> </i><a href="http://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319652436" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;" target="_blank"><i>The
Cost of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century Ireland: Public, Voluntary and Private
Asylum Care</i></a><i style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;"> </i><i style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;">(Palgrave
Macmillan, 2017) which is available via open access and in hardcopy.</i></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
</div>
<hr size="1" style="text-align: left;" width="33%" />
<br />
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">1. John G.
Cooney, ‘Rehabilitation of the Alcoholic’, <i>Journal of the Irish Medical
Association</i> 63, no. 396 (1970), 219-22, on 220.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">2. Cooney
was responsible for the establishment of a specialist treatment programme for
alcohol-related disorders at St Patrick’s, published extensively on the topic
of alcoholism and was a founding member of the Irish National Council on
Alcoholism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3. John G.
Cooney, ‘Alcoholism and Addiction in General Practice’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of the Irish Medical Association </i>53, no. 314 (1963), 54-7,
on 55-6.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4. ‘Problem
of Treating Alcoholism’, <i>Irish Times</i>, 3 March 1962, 7.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5. David
Nowlan, ‘Hidden Disease Dangers: Doctors Discuss Alcohol’, <i>Irish Times</i>,
17 May 1969, 4.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6. John G.
Cooney, ‘Alcohol and the Irish’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal
of the Irish Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons </i>1, no. 2 (1971), 54.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7. ‘Public
Health (Alcohol) Bill for <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Discussion in
Senate Today: College highlights Alcohol’s Role in Completed and Attempted
Suicides and Mental Health Difficulties’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
College of Psychiatrists in Ireland Blog</i> (21 Nov 2017).<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3067494 -6.221033599999999333.7995819 -47.5296271 72.813916900000009 35.0875599tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-20027034401189784732019-11-04T14:21:00.000+00:002020-02-25T09:55:22.532+00:00A Prescription for Change: Training a Doctor in Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Ireland<br />
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<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In
this blog post, Natalie Baldwin, a graduate of UCD's <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">MA in History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a>, explores the realities of training as a medical professional,
past and present.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Today, when
we think of a medical doctor, it is easy to imagine an intelligent,
respected, hard-working and well paid members of society who enjoys a high
social status. It is therefore tempting to assume this has always been the case,
that a career in medicine has always been both socially and financially
rewarding. It may be surprising, then, to learn of the ups and downs medical
students and their families have faced since the nineteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A
Case of History Repeating Itself <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></b></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
Fitzgerald family kept a small but considerable archive of artefacts and
documents relating to members of the family reaching back to the 1840s. When
these were donated to the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland Archives</a>, they presented an incredibly exciting
opportunity for an inherently curious person like myself to get stuck in. As I
began to work through this archive, what struck me most about the Fitzgerald
family was that so many of its members entered into a career in medicine. What
seemed to start with Alexis and his brother James in the 1850s resulted in a medical
dynasty that still survives today. Two members of the family stood out
especially. Dr James Fitzgerald was born in or around 1838 in Tipperary. He
moved to Dublin in the 1850s to study medicine, a move that was perhaps in part
motivated by the fact that his older brother Alexis did the same thing a few
years earlier. Two generations later, his grand-nephew Gerald entered UCD, the
reincarnation of the <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/about-ucd/about/history/" target="_blank">Catholic University of Ireland</a> which James had attended,
to study medicine. Like his great-uncle James, he was following a path set by
his older brothers and by now, his father, as medicine had firmly taken root as
the Fitzgerald family business. James and Gerald went on to leave Ireland once
they graduated. For James, it was to join the Navy while Gerald was offered the
chance to further his education and career by leaving for England and Scotland.
Sadly, these were not the only striking similarities between the pair as both
died prematurely back home in Ireland in their thirties. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Thinking
about James as representative of a doctor’s education and career in the
nineteenth century and Gerald as representative of the twentieth century, we
will take a look at how the education, career, and social standing of a doctor
in Ireland changed or perhaps, stayed the same.</span></span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<h3>
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Status Update</span></span></b></h3>
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NRyjF5GJ0lw/XlPUuTrTruI/AAAAAAAAC30/H6q_3tT1HoEzo8s8UEnnlU8gvOCxJESGACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/IMG1%2BPharmacien%2Bendemie%2BFortune.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1085" data-original-width="1600" height="216" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NRyjF5GJ0lw/XlPUuTrTruI/AAAAAAAAC30/H6q_3tT1HoEzo8s8UEnnlU8gvOCxJESGACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/IMG1%2BPharmacien%2Bendemie%2BFortune.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">'A poor apothecary in a cart being drawn by his
servant </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">are </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">overtaken </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">by a wealthy couple </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">in a</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"> horse-drawn </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">carriage </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">with a </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">seat </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">at the </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">back </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">for their servant'. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">Credit: </span><a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/hye9jabz" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif;" target="_blank">WellcomeCollection. CC BY</a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />The decade or so preceding James’s entry into medicine saw many
attempts to professionalise the sector. In trying to move medicine away from
being considered a trade to a profession, this naturally had a
knock on effect towards the social standing of the doctor. Generally, and
particularly before the middle of the nineteenth century, medicine had a
tripartite structure and like most structures, was hierarchical in nature. At
the top there was the physician, followed by the surgeon with the apothecarist
sitting on the bottom rung of the ladder. The three enjoyed differing levels of
social status. Alongside the orthodox or regular practitioners, were the
unorthodox practitioners or "quacks". These included druggists, bonesetters or
any member of the medical community that occupied the fringes of society. The
medical marketplace was already overcrowded, especially in England, and having
to compete for patients alongside unqualified "quacks" naturally created some
anxiety for the trained practitioner. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
<a href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1858/act/90/enacted/en/print.html" target="_blank">Medical Act, 1858</a> attempted to alleviate some of these concerns. The Act tried
to regulate the education and training of doctors and required all practicing
members to sign the registry of the General Medical Council (GMC). While it
differentiated between regular and irregular practitioners by only allowing
fully trained and qualified ones to sign the register, the Act failed to
prevent "quacks" from actually practicing. Members of the public were still
unlikely to be able to discern between the two. The Act went some way towards
professionalising medicine by trying to control entry and setting a standard of
training. This meant that registered practitioners could distance themselves
from tradespeople by charging for a service rather than a commodity. However,
the Act was considered a failure for many orthodox members of the community as
it still meant they had to jostle their way through a saturated market rife
with "quacks".</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/alice/Dropbox/Autumn%20-Winter%202015/6.%20CHOMI%20Blog/Blog%20Post%202.docx#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>1</sup></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">So
what did all this mean for James and Gerald? Well for James, he started his
studies just a few years before the 1858 Act came into effect. In fact, he
graduated the following year. For students studying at this time, the terms of
the Act specified that they would not be penalised and their training and
education would be valid. Gerald did not begin his studies until 1930 but even
so, the Medical Act of 1858 could have caused some worries of their own for
him, even almost seventy years later. Unlike his great-uncle, Gerald began his
medical career in post-independence Ireland. However, like his great-uncle’s
experience, medical education was still under the influence of Britain and the
control of the GMC. The Medical Act of 1858 threw up its own obstacles for the
medical profession in the newly established Free State. For starters there was
talk of setting up a separate medical register for the newly partitioned
island. This created unease amongst the community with many highlighting the
fact that Irish doctors relied on work in Britain and therefore needed to
remain eligible to sign the general medical register upon graduation.
Universities would suffer too if the numbers of medical students dropped as
they relied heavily on their fees to keep the university as a whole afloat.
Luckily for Gerald and those who studied in the few years before him, the issue
was resolved in 1927 with the Medical Practitioners Act where it was agreed
that Irish doctors could still sign the general medical register.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
Price of Education<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Despite
the fact that medicine was clearly an economically precarious and overcrowded
business, in nineteenth and twentieth-century Ireland, many students, or indeed
their parents, were motivated to study medicine by the promise of social
mobility and the chance to earn a place among the ranks of the middle classes.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>2</sup></span></span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZMYblqpe7nQ/XlPUzYlt3tI/AAAAAAAAC4E/DE2FGOaYDCoGPaN54wU4VQaRwOioSUJOgCEwYBhgL/s1600/IMG2%2BThe%2BMedical%2BStudent.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1337" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZMYblqpe7nQ/XlPUzYlt3tI/AAAAAAAAC4E/DE2FGOaYDCoGPaN54wU4VQaRwOioSUJOgCEwYBhgL/s320/IMG2%2BThe%2BMedical%2BStudent.jpg" width="266" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 107%;">'A foppish medical student smoking a cigarette, </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">a </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">tankard </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">is on top of his medical books; </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">denoting </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">a </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">cavalier </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">attitude (1854)'. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">Credit: </span><a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/um6qhheq" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif;" target="_blank">WellcomeCollection. CC BY</a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Encouraging
your child to attend a medical school was not without its financial sacrifices
though. Factoring in the cost of lodgings, lectures, grinds, clothing expenses,
reading materials and general maintenance costs, it is estimated that sending a
student to Cecilia Street where James received his education, cost about £400-500.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>3</sup></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> Bursaries were available for less well-off students attending Cecilia Street
who wanted to study medicine but amounted to only £40 a year for up to two year’s
study. In most cases, the cost of funding a medical student’s education fell to
the parents. Nothing in James Fitzgerald’s personal notes indicated he was
working to fund his studies so most likely he was put through university by his
parents. James’s older brother Alexis was also a doctor and graduated four
years before he did. Considering a doctor during the late nineteenth century
would go on to earn about £90 to £120 a year, it seems less likely that parents
were driven by the financial incentive of having a doctor in the family. We
should also remember that the sacrifices began well before sending a student to
university as in the second half of the nineteenth century receiving just a
second level education placed you in the minority.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>4</sup></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> For
James’s grand-nephew Gerald, the financial costs of a medical degree had
increased further. Gerald graduated from UCD in 1936. In the years before the
outbreak of World War Two, the cost of obtaining a medical education was said
to be approximately £1500.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>5</sup></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
financial situation may not have improved for James even after he qualified and
secured a position as assistant surgeon in the Royal Navy. For starters, navy
surgeons had to acquire their own kit of surgical tools. This seems
unreasonable enough but when you consider that an assistant surgeon like James
was paid only about £2-£3 per month,<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>6</sup></span></span></span></span> the economic incentive for becoming a doctor seems less and less appealing. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Upwardly
Mobile </span></span></b></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">If
the potential financial rewards were not especially inspiring, it would seem
more convincing that the motivation for parents to encourage their children
into a career in medicine was driven by the sense of respectability garnered
through having a doctor in the family. Kelly likens this to the social standing
Catholic families in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century attained from
having a priest in the family.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>7</sup></span></span></span></span> James and Alexis’s parents must surely have enjoyed a significant sense of
respectability as not only did they have two doctors in the family, but a
priest as well in their third son Fr Michael. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">There
may have been other factors though in motivating James’s and Gerald’s entry
into the world of medicine. Kelly writes about how medical education in Ireland
tied in with notions of manhood and its transformative power of turning boys
into men. She also speaks of how its competitive nature further emphasised the
traditionally masculine nature of the medical student.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>8</sup></span></span></span></span> As James’s older brother Alexis studied medicine too, it is possible to imagine
that this competitive manliness tied in with sibling rivalry and he simply
wanted to copy his older brother’s example. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
Family Business </span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">By
the time Gerald decided to begin his journey towards being a doctor though,
things had changed quite a bit for the Fitzgerald family. While the two
generations prior had seen his great-uncles James and Alexis carve a path into
medicine, Gerald was born into quite a different landscape. Gerald’s father
Alexis was doctor and medical officer at Waterford District Asylum at the time
of Gerald’s birth in 1913. Many students entered into medicine because it was
the profession of their father. Over 11% of students who graduated from the
Queen’s Colleges in 1872-1917 had a family background in medicine.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>9</sup></span></span></span></span> However, it wasn’t just Gerald’s father that could have influenced his
decision. Not only were his father’s two uncles doctors, but his own uncle
James as well as his two older brothers Oliver and Patrick. So while James and
Alexis in the mid-nineteenth century may have been driven by a desire for
middle-class respectability, Gerald may likely have felt that medicine was the
family profession.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
Spectre of Emigration<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Leaving
Ireland upon graduating medical school was a fate that befell both James and
Gerald. Ireland saw high levels of emigration generally throughout the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century. This was particularly acute though
within the medical profession.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>10</sup></span></span></span></span> With so many doctors emigrating to England from the medical schools in both
Ireland and Scotland, these years ushered in a period of underemployment among
doctors. Add an abundance of qualified doctors to the fact that there still
remained some competition from the unregulated practitioners, and there was now
increased pressure to find suitable and fulfilling positions for the medical
graduate.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>11</sup></span></span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Out
at Sea</span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-EN1zYaW6lSc/XlPUzg-BA1I/AAAAAAAAC4E/Cs__SFKhvh8NVNrvSKl0YbkuBshR4CQgQCEwYBhgL/s1600/IMG3%2BNaval%2BUniform.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1261" data-original-width="1600" height="252" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-EN1zYaW6lSc/XlPUzg-BA1I/AAAAAAAAC4E/Cs__SFKhvh8NVNrvSKl0YbkuBshR4CQgQCEwYBhgL/s320/IMG3%2BNaval%2BUniform.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 107%;">'Naval officers and men on a ship, dressed in
the </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">uniform </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">of nine </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">labelled ranks of the Royal Navy'.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Credit: <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ytcynbrs" target="_blank">Wellcome Collection. CC BY</a> </span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">James
graduated in 1859. In a cohort of medical students studied by Jones from the
period 1860-1960, the number working outside of Ireland ten years after
graduation was found to be 41%. James was therefore not unusual in his path
following graduation as the same cohort studied showed that for those not
practicing in Ireland after graduation, the majority either set up their own
practice in England or, like James, served in the military or within the
British Empire.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">12</span></sup></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> It may seem unusual for a Catholic like James to have joined the Royal Navy but
in fact, he was one of a growing number of men from Ireland who joined from the
1840s onwards. For them, life in the Navy particularly as a medic, offered an
escape from Ireland and a chance to further their career in a way that staying
at home couldn’t allow.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>13</sup></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> So while it would seem that he may not have been well rewarded financially,
perhaps the adventure was enough to keep him there for seven full years
considering many assistant surgeons left after serving only three years.</span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 107%;"><sup>14</sup></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> Although,
considering his sick list seemed to mainly record him treating case after case
of venereal disease and coughs and colds, life in the Navy undoubtedly wasn’t
one non-stop adventure.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
Export Market </span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Ireland
enjoyed a good reputation in the post-independence era for its medical schools
but like students of James’s era, emigration was still prevalent for graduates
owing somewhat to economic hardship in the post-war period.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>15</sup></span></span></span></span> The hundred year period from 1860 to 1960, which included Gerald’s years of
study, saw more students go through Irish medical schools than there were
positions for at the other end. Essentially, the emigration of medical
graduates was considered par for the course. It may therefore seem strange that
universities in Ireland continued to oversubscribe students for their medical
schools knowing full well that they would be exporting many but the
universities, particularly the Catholic University, relied heavily on the
contribution medical students’ fees made towards the running of the entire
institution.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>16</sup></span></span></span></span> Gerald moved to London in 1938, two years after he graduated from UCD. He had
been awarded a travelling scholarship by the Mater Hospital to study neurology.
He stayed in London for some time before eventually moving to Edinburgh to
further his career again, this time to study psychiatry. He did not return to
Ireland until about 1945 when he took up a post in the Mater Hospital.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>17</sup></span></span></span></span> Like James, leaving Ireland had certainly afforded Gerald greater opportunities
to develop as a doctor, gain independence, and broaden his skills. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The
More Things Change…</span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">What
of today then? We could easily assume that a doctor in the twenty-first century
has it much easier than James or even Gerald did. But perhaps things actually are
not so different. While a doctor’s social status may have improved since
James’s time, recent studies have shown that members of the medical profession
report feeling under-respected. With increased competition from other
healthcare practitioners echoing the struggle of the previous generations, and
less and less professional autonomy, many doctors feel they do not enjoy the
same level of status as the profession once did or as perhaps they expected to experience.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: x-small; mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup>18</sup></span></span></span></span> There are regular reports in the news highlighting the fact that Ireland continues
to produce doctors for export with many leaving for the UK, Australia and the
US. Staff shortages are common place in Irish hospitals along with overcrowding
from patients. Salaries for consultancy positions have not recovered to the
levels they were before the economic recession.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">19</span></sup><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">So
if today’s doctor is overworked, underpaid, and under-respected, who would want
to join such a profession? Well apparently, quite a lot of people. Places to
study medicine in Irish universities are still some of the most competitive,
typically requiring some of the highest CAO points. The introduction of the
Health Professions Admissions Test (HPAT) some years ago attempted to ensure that
well rounded candidates were offered places rather than just those that
achieved the highest academic scores. School leavers and even mature students
are clearly not deterred despite the various challenges – new and old – that
beset the medical profession. Like James and Gerald, many could be following an
already established family path into the profession. It is likely that for
many, having to leave Ireland upon graduating is seen as an exciting
opportunity rather than enforced emigration. Rather than being seen as a badge
of social standing, there is also the possibility that an offer to study
medicine is viewed as a mark of intellectual status. It is well known how hard
a secondary school student must work to earn enough Leaving Certificate points
to be offered a place. To actually complete the five to six years of medical
training is definitely a remarkable achievement. For some, perhaps medicine is
just in the blood; a path they were destined to follow, neither a trade nor a
profession but simply a vocation.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Natalie Baldwin</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Natalie Baldwin </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">completed her MA on </span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a> </i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">at the </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> in 2018/2019.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Acknowledgements</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Research completed in collaboration with Harriet Wheelock, Keeper of Collections, <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland Archive Collections</a>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
</div>
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<br />
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">1. Anne Digby, <i>Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market for Medicine, 1720-1911 </i>(Cambridge, 2002), pp 28, 31, 36-37.</span>
<br />
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">2. Laura
Kelly, <i>Irish Medical Education and Student Culture, c. 1850-1950</i> (Liverpool,
2017), pp 200-203, 71, 73.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3. F.O.C.
Meenan, <i>Cecilia Street: The Catholic University School of Medicine
1855-1931</i> (Dublin, 1987), p. 24.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4. Kelly, <i>Irish
Medical Education</i>, p. 74. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5. ‘The
Cost of Medical Education’, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, 6 September 1947,
p. 392.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6. Jonathan
Charles Goddard, ‘The Navy Surgeon’s Chest: Surgical Instruments of the Royal
Navy during the Napoleonic War’, <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine</i>,
97 (2004), pp 191-197.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7. Kelly, <i>Irish
Medical Education</i>, p. 84.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">8. Laura
Kelly, ‘Irish Medical Student Culture and the Performance of Masculinity, c.
1850-1930’, <i>History of Education</i>, 46, no. 1 (2017) pp 39-57.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">9. Kelly, <i>Irish
Medical Education</i>, p. 73. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10. Greta
Jones, ‘“Strike Out Boldly for the Prizes that are Available to You”: Medical
Emigration from Ireland 1860-1905’, <i>Medical History</i>, 54 (2010), pp
55-74.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">11. Digby, <i>Making
a Medical Living</i>, p. 140.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">12. Jones,
“Strike out Boldly,’’ pp 56, 59. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">13. S. Karly
Kehoe, ‘Accessing Empire: Irish Surgeons and the Royal Navy, 1840-1880’, <i>Social
History of Medicine</i> 26, no. 2 (2012), pp 204-224, 207.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">14. ‘Army and
Navy Medical Service’, <i>British Medical Journal</i> 1, no. 275 (1866), p.
366.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">15. Kelly, <i>Irish
Medical Education</i>, p. 201. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">16. Jones, ‘Strike
out Boldly’, p. 68.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn17" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">17. Edward A.
Martin, <i>A Historical, Biographical and Anecdotal Account of the
Neurological Sciences in Ireland from the earliest days to 1975</i> (Dublin, 2012),
pp 40-1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn18" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">18. Lipworth
et al. <i>Doctors on Status and respect: A Qualitative Study, Bioethical
Inquiry,</i> 10 (2013) pp 205-206.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn19" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">19. <i>Irish
Times</i>, 26 Dec 2017; <i>Irish Times</i>, 26 Sept 2018.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
</div>
<br />UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comUniversity College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3067494 -6.221033599999999327.7847149 -47.5296276 78.8287839 35.0875604tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-28950738335961309372019-09-02T16:40:00.000+01:002020-02-27T08:59:27.226+00:00Who’s to Blame?: Inquests into Convict Deaths in Mountjoy, c.1868-1900<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In this blog post, Annika Liger, a graduate of UCD's </span></i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">MA in History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a></i></span><i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">,
reveals anxieties around the medical care of prisoners in the late nineteenth century by examining newspaper coverage of inquests into
convict deaths in Mountjoy prison.</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bjGqrt8PVv8/XlKw2lrhE3I/AAAAAAAAC3c/IOriY5WI4AoXQrRQdpf4qGAFwX-Py2bpQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Death%2Bof%2BA%2BConvict%2Bin%2BMountjoy%2BPrison.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="161" data-original-width="328" height="156" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bjGqrt8PVv8/XlKw2lrhE3I/AAAAAAAAC3c/IOriY5WI4AoXQrRQdpf4qGAFwX-Py2bpQCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Death%2Bof%2BA%2BConvict%2Bin%2BMountjoy%2BPrison.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
“Death
of a Convict in Mountjoy Prison”, Evening Telegraph<br />
(1 October 1895). Newspaper image © The British Library Board<br />
All rights reserved. With
thanks to the <a href="http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/" target="_blank">British Newspaper Archive</a>.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Following a convict’s death, nationalist journalist Alexander Sullivan
wrote to the city coroner saying, ‘you cannot be unaware that Mountjoy prison
lies under public suspicion as to the medical treatment of prisoners’.<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span> </sup>This
‘suspicion’ surrounding Mountjoy greatly influenced the inquests into convict
deaths in the late 1800s. These hearings, which were widely covered in
newspaper reports, reflected the public’s interest in Mountjoy and the
circumstances surrounding prisoner deaths. While many of the hearings resulted
in a simple death by natural causes verdict, the courses of the inquests reveal
deep reservations concerning Mountjoy’s medical care. When the juries decided
that someone was to blame for a prisoner’s death, it then prompted the question
of who was more at fault—the prison medical officer (PMO) or the prison system? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Inquests</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In late 1800s Ireland, when someone died an investigation into their
death was carried out at the coroner’s discretion. Generally, inquests only
happened in cases of suspicious or unusual deaths, and the last attending
medical practitioner, or any other local medical professional, was consulted.
The medical community in general took these inquests quite seriously, and the
‘Principal Laws’ that governed United Kingdom medical professionals included a
section on proper inquest conduct. These rules emphasized that medical
officials giving evidence should be honest and accurate as their testimony was
usually very influential.</span><sup style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><sup></sup><br /><sup>
</sup>For general medical practitioners, these inquests could be stressful
affairs. Depending on the outcome, the inquest could either enhance their
professional reputation or destroy it. The same held true for PMOs, who had the added weight of also being responsible for protecting the prison’s
reputation.<sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">3</span></sup> Prior to 1877, prisoner death inquests were only called if the coroner felt one was necessary. In 1877, with the passing of the <a href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1877/act/49/enacted/en/print.html" target="_blank">General Prison (Ireland) Act</a>, inquests became mandatory in the event of a prisoner’s death. As
a result, the number of inquests increased and PMOs ended up in front of a jury
more frequently defending themselves and the prison. </span><br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The PMOs</span></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">For information on prisoner death inquests, I mainly looked at Irish newspaper
articles concerning the Dublin convict prison Mountjoy and two PMOs that worked
there in the late 1800s: Dr James William Young and Dr Patrick O’Keefe. Young
served at Mountjoy as a PMO from 1867-83. O’Keefe succeeded Young as head PMO
at Mountjoy and served there from 1883-c.1907. Both Young and O’Keefe were highly
educated individuals with multiple medical degrees who made careers out of
working for the Irish prison system as medical officers.<sup>4</sup> As PMOs, Young
and O’Keefe were in charge of the general health of prisoners. They assigned
diets, determined whether or not prisoners were suited for punishment or labor,
and treated inmates’ specific aliments, among other duties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
Newspaper reports of the coroner’s inquests reveal that while Young and O’Keefe
faced scrutiny in these hearings, Mountjoy itself received the majority of the
blame in prisoner deaths. Coroner’s inquests in the late 1800s largely ended up
being arenas where juries, coroners, and even the PMOs themselves, questioned
and critiqued the Irish penal system’s care of prisoners in Mountjoy. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<b style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;">Death by Natural Causes</b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b></b><br /><b></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In a few cases where Young and O’Keefe testified, the jury found no
reason to blame either of the PMOs or the prison. They simply concluded that
the prisoner had died of natural causes, as was the case when prisoner Patrick Naughton
died in 1886.<sup>5</sup><sup> </sup>Likewise, when in 1893, Thomas Pembroke fell ill and died in prison, after
testimony from multiple doctors, including O’Keefe, the jury decided that
Pembroke was treated adequately and no one was at fault for his death.<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
In other cases, ultimately both the prison and PMOs were cleared of blame, but
during the trial there were debates over the various parties’ culpability. This
is perhaps due to the general sense of skepticism when it came to Mountjoy that
Sullivan mentioned in his letter at the beginning of this post. We can see
evidence that others shared Sullivan’s concern over Mountjoy through the kinds
of questions juries asked of the defendants, which often demanded that the PMOs
explain in detail the care provided to the deceased. Some of the newspapers also
reported that the juries were critical of the PMOs going into the inquests.
After the death of a prisoner in 1868, for example, the jury was reportedly
suspicious of Young from the outset. However, in this case they ultimately
decided that he was not to blame.<sup>7</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
The testimonies that Young, O’Keefe, and other prison officials provided also
suggest they were well aware of the public’s suspicion surrounding
Mountjoy and tried to assuage any such fears. In 1883, during the inquest into
Michael Watters’ death, Young, O’Keefe, and Kelly, another medical
practitioner, all agreed that ‘death was not attributable to punishment or any
form of ill-treatment’, thus contesting the notion that the prison’s
disciplinary methods could be responsible for Watters’ death.<sup>8</sup> In an 1886
case, the jury found that James Davies’ died of natural causes after a very
laudatory testimony from the city coroner concerning the treatment of prisoners
in Mountjoy. The coroner was adamant that Davies did not die as a result of
neglect, saying that once a prisoner became ill ‘all his crimes appeared to be
forgotten by the prison officials, who did everything for his comfort … they
always have the best medical treatment’.<sup>9</sup> Given the suspicion surrounding
Mountjoy at the time, this praise was quite possibly an active attempt to
combat the concern over inadequate prisoner care.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>PMO Blamed for Convict Death</b></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Unfortunately for the PMOs and Mountjoy, juries did not always decide
that death was simply due to natural causes. When the juries found someone
at fault, it placed the PMOs and the prison in a very critical spotlight and
left juries, commissioners, and journalists debating which party was more to
blame </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 107%;">–</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> the PMO or the prison. In particular, Young faced two noteworthy
inquests, one in 1868 over Matthew Lynagh and the other in 1870, concerning
Johanna Hayes. Both of these cases were suspicious enough to prompt inquests in
a time before inquests were mandatory. Additionally, both cases were widely
covered in newspapers across Ireland.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
During Lynagh’s inquest, Young explained that he was treating Lynagh, but
thought he was improving. As a result, Young initially declined to send Lynagh
to the prison hospital. Ultimately, the jury blamed Young for Lynagh’s death,
arguing that Lynagh should have been sent to the hospital much sooner. They
also specifically called out Young, saying he ‘might be more attentive to
extern patients’.<sup>10</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Or Was the Prison Really at Fault?</b></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
While the jury in the Lynagh case firmly held that Young was to blame, the nationalist
newspaper <i>The Nation </i>and the official
Commissioners’ Report presented slightly different takes on Lynagh’s death. Both
addressed the jury’s critique of Young, but argued that Lynagh’s death was not
actually Young’s fault. One month after the inquest, the Commissioners
released their report exonerating Young. They recognised the jury’s verdict,
but said that Lynagh’s death was inevitable and ‘that the man was not neglected
during his illness by Dr Young or the other officers of the prison’.<sup>11</sup> Notably,
while defending Young, they also declined to assign any blame to the prison
system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In 1871, <i>The Nation</i> published a
scathing review of Mountjoy prison and mentioned the Lynagh case from 1868. The
writer primarily saw Young as an agentless cog in a machine, thereby absolving
him of blame. They claimed that the Lynagh inquest ‘resulted in a verdict
censuring the Medical Officer; a clear injustice towards him, inasmuch as he
probably did his duty <i>as far as he could</i> [sic] under the
altered systems’.<sup>12</sup> The article continued and reiterated this point suggesting that
some vague prison bureaucracy prevented Young from providing more treatment to
Lynagh. Unlike the Commissioner’s report which absolved Young but did not blame
the prison system, <i>The Nation</i> blatantly held
the prison at fault for Lynagh’s death.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Conclusions like this that pardoned the PMO while simultaneously condemning
the prison system were not uncommon. In an 1895 inquest over Christopher
Connor’s death the coroner told the jury that ‘the evidence showed that no
blame attached to Dr. O’Keefe or the governor ... they did all that the rules
permitted for the man ... the rules as the nursing of sick persons in [Mountjoy]
were simply abominable’.<sup>13</sup> The jury agreed with the coroner
and their verdict called out the prison’s nursing system while also clearly
stating that O’Keefe was not at all responsible for Connor’s death.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>The Complicated Case of Johanna Hayes</b></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
In 1870, Young was dragged back into the spotlight with the death of Johanna
Hayes in Mountjoy Female prison. During the hearing, Young reportedly testified
that after entering the prison Hayes’ health began declining, and he
recommended that she be released from prison with respect to her failing
health. However, this recommendation was not heeded, and Hayes remained in
prison where she died. In contrast to the Lynagh case, here the jury lauded
Young for his attempts to aid Hayes and get her released. Interestingly, the
jury did not directly blame the prison system, despite the penal system’s
denial of Hayes’ release on medical grounds. The jury did note, however, that
Hayes died as a result of her being in prison.<sup>14</sup> This conclusion
suggests the jury found the prison partly to blame, but not wholly at fault as
it had not actively contributed to Hayes’ death.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
While this trial ended relatively well for Young and the prison, not everyone
agreed with the jury’s take on the events. Like the jury, Sullivan, the
aforementioned nationalist journalist, did not blame Young, although he was
skeptical of him. Rather, Sullivan railed against the Irish penal system in a
letter to the city coroner, which was eventually published in the
newspaper <i>The Warder</i>. In this letter,
Sullivan addressed his preference for Young’s predecessor, Dr Macdonnell, and
basically called Young a government lackey. He also commented on the
testimonies presented in the Hayes trial. In particular, Sullivan disliked the
reliance on Young’s deposition, saying the jury held ‘a suspiciously laudatory
protestation’ of Young, and that it was ‘very likely all true; but methought
the jury did protest too much’.<sup>15</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
Sullivan’s issue with the jury’s praise was further illuminated during a libel
trial that resulted from the publication of this letter. During that libel
trial, Mr Butt, speaking for defendant Sullivan, argued that the jury’s praise
was for the benefit of Young and the prison system:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Then came the [Hayes]
inquest, when Dr. Younge [sic] whitewashed off the black cloud of censure
passed on him at the first inquest [Lynagh’s case in 1868] … was it very strange
if Mr. Sullivan should say this was an attempt to prop up a new system, in
which Dr. Younge [sic] was to be praised for his exertions?<sup>16</sup></span> </blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">While Sullivan did take some shots at Young with his suggestions that he
was a government stooge, he ultimately did not think Young was to blame, even
if the jury’s praise in the Hayes inquest was suspicious. Instead, Sullivan
complained about the penal system and how it affected prisoner health. While
not directly stating that Mountjoy was responsible for prisoner deaths,
Sullivan certainly found the inquests, and their non-critical outcomes, to be
dubious, thinly-veiled attempts to protect the prison’s reputation following
convict deaths.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>In House Complaints</b></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
Critiques of the prison system were not unusual in inquests, and as we have
already seen there was an established suspicion surrounding prisoner deaths and
the prison system’s level of blame. Prison outsiders, such as juries, coroners,
and journalists like Sullivan, used these inquests to question the prison
system. Likewise, prison insiders also utilized inquests to critique the
prison, and Young and O’Keefe occasionally provided testimonies that called out
the prison’s operation and treatment of prisoners.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">O’Keefe, albeit somewhat begrudgingly, spoke out against the prison
system in his testimony during the 1895 inquest into Christopher Connor’s
death. The jury began the inquest highly suspicious of the prison, with
O’Keefe, the prison governor, and the penal system all being called into
question. One of the coroner’s and jury’s main problems was that Connor’s
family and friends had not been alerted to his illness, a matter one juror
reportedly called ‘monstrous’.<sup>17</sup> O’Keefe explained that no one was
contacted because he did not believe that Connor’s condition was as serious as
it ended up being. He also emphasized that the governor notified families, not
the PMO, so he was not technically to blame for the lack of contact.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
The other issue highlighted in the newspaper coverage was the implementation,
or lack thereof, of night nursing in Mountjoy. The coroner implied that Connor
would have been better cared for had there been a better nursing system in
place. When the coroner asked O’Keefe for his take on the system of night
nursing, O’Keefe initially refused to give an opinion. After the coroner
pressed, O’Keefe relented replying ‘Well, I think it might be improved’.<sup>18</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
Following the death of a convict in 1878, Young testified that he had done what
he could for the patient in the prison cells, but chose not to send the
prisoner to the hospital. This decision was vastly unpopular with the jury who
heavily questioned Young’s decision. Young claimed that the convict was not
sent to the hospital because of ‘the small hospital accommodation and heat of
the weather … the accommodation [in hospital] was insufficient’.<sup>19</sup> Using the
public forum of the inquest, Young aired his complaint about the prison
hospital and argued its inadequacy directly contributed to the convict’s death.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />
While both Young and O’Keefe clearly critiqued Mountjoy and the ways in which
the prison was run, these criticisms were not perhaps without ulterior motive.
Going into these inquests, the juries were already suspicious of Young and
O’Keefe and the care they provided. As a result, it is possible that O’Keefe
and Young highlighted the poor night nursing and hospital accommodations
respectively as a way to transfer the blame from them to the prison at large.
In both of these cases as well, neither O’Keefe nor Young were found at fault
for the prisoner’s death.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Conclusions</b></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Coroner’s inquests into prisoner deaths were weighty affairs for the
PMOs and Irish prison system. While in most cases the juries and coroners
agreed that death was by natural causes, there was still an underlying
suspicion concerning the prison officials and the prison. When the inquests
found that the convicts’ deaths were preventable, it resulted in a debate over
which party, the PMO or the prison, bore the brunt of the blame. In the end,
while the juries were skeptical of the PMOs, it was the prison that was blamed
most often for deaths in Mountjoy in the late 1800s. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Annika Liger</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Annika Liger </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">completed her MA on </span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a> </i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">at the </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> in 2018/2019.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Acknowledgements</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Research completed in collaboration with Harriet Wheelock, Keeper of Collections, <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physicians of Ireland Archive Collections</a>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">1. “Assize intelligence” <i>The Warder</i> 1 April 1871.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">2. “Duty of medical men as witnesses”, <i>United Kingdom
Register 1889</i>, pp. 18-9. <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physicians Ireland (RCPI) Archives</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">3. Michael J Clark, “General practice and coroners’ practice:
Medico-legal work and the Irish medical profession, c. 1830-c.1890” in <i>Cultures
of Care in Irish Medical History 1750-1970</i> eds. Catherine Cox and
Maria Luddy (New York, 2010), p. 40, 50.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">4. Biographical information was gathered from papers, medical
registers, and the Kirkpatrick Index all held in the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/our-archive-collections/" target="_blank">RCPI archive</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">5. “The death of a convict” <i>The Daily Express </i>18
September 1886<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">6. “Death of a convict”, <i>Evening Herald </i>9 January
1893<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">7. “Mountjoy prison”, <i>Nenagh Guardian </i>21 March 1868<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">8. “Death of a convict” <i>The Daily Express </i>25 October
1883<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">9. “Death of a convict” <i>The Daily Express </i>11 March
1886<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">10. “Coroner’s inquest on the body of a convict” <i>Saunders’s
Newsletter </i>15 February 1868<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">11. <i>Report of the Commissioners appointed by Lord Lieutenant to
inquire into circumstances concerning death of convict M. Lynagh in Mountjoy
Prison</i>, H.C. 1867-1868. p. 4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">12. “Secrets of the prison-house” <i>The Nation</i> 15 April
1871<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">13. “Death of a convict in Mountjoy prison: Extraordinary condition of
things: Strong condemnation by the coroner and jury” <i>Evening Telegraph</i> 1
October 1895.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">14. “Inquest at Mountjoy prison” <i>Irish Times</i>12 January
1870<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">15. “Assize intelligence” <i>The Warder</i> 1 April 1871<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">16. “Assize intelligence” <i>The Warder</i> 1 April 1871<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">17. “Death of a convict in Mountjoy prison: Extraordinary condition of
things: Strong condemnation by the coroner and jury” <i>Evening Telegraph</i> 1
October 1895.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">18. Ibid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">19. “The sudden death in a convict prison” <i>The Northern Whig</i> 27
July 1878<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<br /></div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comUniversity College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Co. Dublin, Ireland53.3059674 -6.221672727.7839329 -47.5302667 78.8280019 35.0869213tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-72492151080939221052019-06-15T10:49:00.000+01:002020-02-24T12:27:29.651+00:00Irish Medical Responses to Problem Drinking from Institutionalisation to Public Health: Part I<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In the first of this two-part series, <a href="https://people.ucd.ie/alice.mauger" target="_blank">Dr Alice Mauger</a>, Wellcome Trust Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, UCD, looks at the changing approaches of medical practitioners and psychiatrists to problem drinking in Ireland at the turn of the twentieth century.</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">After over 1,000 days of debate, in October 2018, the Irish government passed the <a href="https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/2015/120/" target="_blank">Public Health (Alcohol) Bill</a>. The Act will introduce minimum unit pricing as well as rigorous regulations surrounding advertising, sponsorship, sale and supply. Under this legislation, Ireland may become the first country in the world to attach stark health warnings to alcohol products. Billed as the first time the Irish state has legislated for alcohol as a public health issue, the Act is intended to significantly alter the culture of drinking in Ireland. While unsurprisingly the subject of extensive lobbying from the drinks industry and other stakeholders, the measures have gained overwhelming support from the Irish medical profession. The Bill’s tortuous passage is therefore a reminder of Ireland’s ambivalent and complex relationship with alcohol. This relationship is deeply embedded in Irish politics, culture and society and has a very long historical lineage. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A ‘Disease Concept’ of Inebriety</span></h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-EgiFyFSLqTQ/XQSrjbLaHOI/AAAAAAAAB84/qSiqHpCS6MEE_19h36Jfdub8I_pQFFF7QCEwYBhgL/s1600/ephraim.cosgrave.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="617" data-original-width="480" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-EgiFyFSLqTQ/XQSrjbLaHOI/AAAAAAAAB84/qSiqHpCS6MEE_19h36Jfdub8I_pQFFF7QCEwYBhgL/s320/ephraim.cosgrave.jpg" width="248" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ephraim M. Cosgrave (1853-1928). Courtesy of the <br />
<a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physician of Ireland Heritage Centre</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Like their European and American colleagues, by the 1890s many Irish doctors were describing the inability to resist alcohol as a disease. But the belief shared by many that the ‘drunkard’ was to blame for their condition, and therefore deserved punishment, was resilient. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Perhaps the most ardent Irish medical commentator on alcohol in this period was <a href="https://rcpi-live-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/104-Cosgrave.pdf" target="_blank">Ephraim MacDowel Cosgrave</a>, a physician at several Dublin hospitals who would later become president of the <a href="https://www.rcpi.ie/heritage-centre/" target="_blank">Royal College of Physicians</a> (RCPI). For Cosgrave, the creation of institutions specially designed for the ‘control of inebriates’ would be the answer to Ireland’s ‘drink question’.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#1" name="top1"><sup>1</sup></a> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Cosgrave was not alone in promoting this approach. Inebriate homes are said to have originated in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century and by 1870 had begun to appear in Britain. Cosgrave’s stance mirrored British developments, where under the guidance of leading inebriety expert, <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/s2eqj227" target="_blank">Dr Norman Shanks Kerr</a>, medical practitioners were canvassing for the system’s expansion. Yet, in Ireland, many doctors continued to recommend alternatives ranging from committal of drunkards to lunatic asylums to their detention at home by physical force.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#2" name="top2"><sup>2</sup></a> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Despite the almost draconian nature of these suggestions, such attitudes did not apparently extend to alcohol itself. Reacting to proposals to further restrict pub opening hours at weekends, in 1895 a contributor to the Dublin Journal of Medical Science declared:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">We object to the grandmotherly legislation and coercion. The liberty of the subject is sufficiently restricted already, and the patience with which millions of law-respecting citizens tolerate the curtailment of their personal liberty, lest a weak brother should offend, is a marvellous testimony to our inborn respect for law. Restrictions and pledges cannot create an Utopia.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#3" name="top3"><sup>3</sup></a> </span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Such claims diverged significantly from the now commonly accepted ‘disease view’ of inebriety, which saw alcohol as an inherently addictive substance, which put anyone who drank at serious risk of losing control over their habit. In Ireland, at least some doctors were openly contesting further restrictions, a fact which lends further weight to traditional portrayals of more permissive popular attitudes towards drunkenness in Ireland. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Institutions for Inebriates</span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pDIvoUautWA/XQSsUTrwESI/AAAAAAAAB9A/tmZmzdKL5TcWbYBmBLIRYecHekrPcqDRgCEwYBhgL/s1600/st.pats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="528" data-original-width="451" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pDIvoUautWA/XQSsUTrwESI/AAAAAAAAB9A/tmZmzdKL5TcWbYBmBLIRYecHekrPcqDRgCEwYBhgL/s320/st.pats.jpg" width="273" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Painting by patient in St Patrick’s Hospital, Dublin (1905). <br />
Source: E/137 Case Book, Males, St. Patrick’s, p.32.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Calls for inebriate reformatories in Ireland were eventually met in 1898. The <a href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1898/act/60/enacted/en/print.html" target="_blank">Inebriates Act</a> of that year was the first to extend to Ireland and allowed for the committal to state-funded reformatories of anyone who was tried and convicted of drunkenness at least four times in one year. But what medical reformers had been campaigning for – that is the compulsory power to detain non-criminal inebriates – never became law. In Ireland, this Act led to the creation of four specialist institutions. Of these four, only the Lodge Retreat in Belfast accepted non-criminal inmates and these were limited to relatively wealthy (fee-paying) Protestant women with no compulsory power for their detention. The remaining three institutions could only be accessed by those committed through the courts. Perhaps unsurprisingly then, this inebriate system was short-lived, catered for only a small proportion of Ireland’s ‘habitual drunkards’ and by 1920, all but the Lodge Retreat in Belfast had closed.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Instead, lunatic asylums became the principal treatment centres for problem drinkers. By 1900, 1 in 10 people admitted to Irish asylums were sent there due to ‘intemperance in drink’. This trend gained increasing attention among psychiatrists, not least because of mounting uncertainty as to whether excessive drinking could actually cause mental illness. Some asylum doctors recognised intemperance as a manifestation of an existing mental disorder, others cited adulterated alcohol as a cause and still more believed that the habitual drunkard produced offspring liable to insanity. This latter claim was to be expected, given that alcohol and <a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2185" target="_blank">degeneration </a>were now strongly linked in discussions of the alleged increase of insanity both in Ireland and overseas.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Given the influx of these cases, the Irish psychiatric community were soon called upon to respond. In 1904, delegates at a conference of the British Medico-Psychological Association in Dublin were confronted with evidence of the ‘disastrous effects everywhere observed’ of drink. Reporting on this event in the association’s official journal, the writer proclaimed:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">It may cause some searching of conscience to ask whether our profession as a whole, and particularly our speciality, have up to the present taken a sufficient leading part in the holy war against alcohol. It is high time for our Irish colleagues to make themselves heard upon this subject, when in at least one asylum, one third of the male admissions are attributed chiefly to this cause.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#4" name="top4"><sup>4</sup></a> </span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">This battle cry reverberated with the temperance rhetoric of the day, a movement which boasted strong support from some Irish asylum doctors. Meanwhile, members of the wider medical community showed signs of absorbing, and even propagating, the Nationalist-toned temperance claim that sobriety held the key to Irish independence. In 1904 a reviewer for the Dublin Journal of Medical Science decreed:</span><br />
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">One of the heaviest blows which a patriotic Ireland could possibly inflict on its neighbouring British rulers would be given by taking the pledge all round – old and young – and keeping it! Why, we often say to ourselves, do not patriotic politicians utilise this fact?<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#5" name="top5"><sup>5</sup></a> </span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In spite of calls to engage in the ‘holy war against alcohol’, Irish psychiatrists made little comment in the ensuing decades. Soon after, discussion of the links between alcoholism and degeneration became seriously compromised by new scientific studies which found no evidence that alcoholism in a parent gave rise to mental defects in their children.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">As will be discussed in the next instalment of this series, after the First World War, there was a shift in focus towards alcohol and later, problem drinkers, with the eventual acceptance of a new ‘disease view’. </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Alice Mauger</span></h3>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-M5ubO-lBhu0/XQStcpHdQ6I/AAAAAAAAB9M/J5-_VgEhOecZMVHZ0-fPMW3HfgiF0GOiwCEwYBhgL/s1600/alice.mauger.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="187" data-original-width="140" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-M5ubO-lBhu0/XQStcpHdQ6I/AAAAAAAAB9M/J5-_VgEhOecZMVHZ0-fPMW3HfgiF0GOiwCEwYBhgL/s1600/alice.mauger.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Alice Mauger</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr <a href="https://people.ucd.ie/alice.mauger" target="_blank">Alice Mauger</a> is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the<a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi/" target="_blank"> UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> in the School of History, University College Dublin. Her research project <a href="http://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.com/2017/04/alcohol-medicine-and-irish-society.html" target="_blank">'Alcohol Medicine and Irish Society, c. 1890-1970'</a> is funded by the Wellcome Trust. The project explores the evolution of medicine's role in framing and treating alcoholism in Ireland. It aims to make a significant contribution to the medical humanities, exploring historical sources to better understand and contextualise Irish society's relationship with alcohol. Alice was awarded a PhD by UCD in 2014 for her thesis which examined public, voluntary and private asylum care in nineteenth-century Ireland. Prior to this she completed the MA programme on the Social and Cultural History of Medicine at the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, UCD. Both her MA and PhD were funded by the Wellcome Trust. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Alice has published on the history of psychiatry in Ireland including a full-length monograph: <i><a href="http://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319652436" target="_blank">The Cost of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century Ireland: Public, Voluntary and Private Asylum Care</a></i> (Palgrave Macmillan: 2017), which is available via open access and in hardcopy.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="1"><b>1 </b></a>Ephraim MacDowel Cosgrave, ‘The Control of Inebriates’, <i>Dublin Journal of Medical Science</i>, Vol. XCIII (Jan-Jun 1892), pp.178-85.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#top1"><sup>↩</sup></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="2"><b>2 </b></a>‘Section of State Medicine’, <i>Dublin Journal of Medical Science</i>, Vol. XCIII (Jan-Jun 1892), pp.327-328.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#top2"><sup>↩</sup></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="3"><b>3 </b></a>‘Review of Norman Kerr, Inebriety: its Etiology, Pathology, Treatment, and Jurisprudence, 3rd edition’, <i>Dublin Journal of Medical Science</i>, Vol. XCIX (Jan-Jun 1895), p.50.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#top3"><sup>↩</sup></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="4"><b>4 </b></a>‘Intemperance’, <i>Journal of Mental Science,</i> 50, no. 208 (Jan 1904), pp.117-118, p.117.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#top4"><sup>↩</sup></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="5"><b>5 </b></a>‘The Medical Temperance Review’, <i>Dublin Journal of Medical Science</i>, Vol CXVIII (Jul-Dec 1904), p.140.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/blogger.g?tab=mj1&blogID=3997479995851237814#top5"><sup>↩</sup></a></span></div>
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UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.comJohn Henry Newman Building, Newman Building, University College Dublin, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3059674 -6.221672699999999253.3047814 -6.2241941999999995 53.3071534 -6.2191511999999989tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-75010522944242969952019-06-03T23:11:00.000+01:002019-06-03T23:12:56.192+01:00Abortion and Symphysiotomy in Ireland<br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>In this month's blog post <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/law/news/warm-welcome-dr-lynsey-black" target="_blank">Dr Lynsey Black</a>, Lecturer in Criminology, Department of Law, Maynooth University, considers the legal and historical context of abortion and symphysiotomy in Ireland.</i></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Law and Gender in Modern Ireland</span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NlXC3pkTIJ0/XPWM7TF9yJI/AAAAAAAAB4w/Vmeg6lFsXD8qtNkXJ36HmeDWcmdPSdDqgCLcBGAs/s1600/Law%2Band%2BGender%2Bin%2BModern%2BIreland%2BBook%2BCover.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="630" data-original-width="420" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NlXC3pkTIJ0/XPWM7TF9yJI/AAAAAAAAB4w/Vmeg6lFsXD8qtNkXJ36HmeDWcmdPSdDqgCLcBGAs/s320/Law%2Band%2BGender%2Bin%2BModern%2BIreland%2BBook%2BCover.jpg" width="213" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lynsey Black and Peter Dunne (eds.),<br />
<i><a href="https://www.blogger.com/"><span id="goog_1988095357"></span>Law and Gender in Modern Ireland: Critique<br /> and Reform<span id="goog_1988095358"></span></a> </i>(Hart Publishing, 2019</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">We are currently in the midst of a ‘Decade
of Centenaries’ in Ireland. For anyone working broadly in the field of gender,
it is also clear that we have lived through a decade of reckoning. As editors
of the recently published <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://www.bloomsburyprofessional.com/uk/law-and-gender-in-modern-ireland-9781509917211/" target="_blank">Law and Gender inModern Ireland: Critique and Reform</a> </i>(Hart, 2019), one of the key challenges
has been to present the current legal regime in its historical context. As the
book started to take shape, it became clear that the intersection of medicine,
gender and the law was an essential part of this story. Within the collection, chapters
by <a href="https://www.dcu.ie/law_and_government/people/james-gallen.shtml" target="_blank">James Gallen</a> (Dublin City University) and <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/law/staff/profile.aspx?ReferenceId=119022" target="_blank">Máiréad Enright</a> (University of
Birmingham), which deal with symphysiotomy and abortion respectively, have provided
insight into the role that gender ideologies played in medical practice in
post-independence Ireland. Their chapters outline the prevailing historical
context in which these medical procedures became emblematic of Catholic
conservative Ireland, and the contemporary redress and reform which have
attempted to resolve these wrongs.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Catholic society</span></span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fVic3khKl80/XPWXfqsQZuI/AAAAAAAAB50/FyWE0T2BmxEejUeK-9E3e8_atRkPPpg1wCLcBGAs/s1600/33048402845_fb7a2c16d6_h.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="970" data-original-width="1600" height="193" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fVic3khKl80/XPWXfqsQZuI/AAAAAAAAB50/FyWE0T2BmxEejUeK-9E3e8_atRkPPpg1wCLcBGAs/s320/33048402845_fb7a2c16d6_h.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The march of the Archbishops - Bishops etc., <br />
outside Pro Cathedral, Congress 1932, Dublin City.<br />
Eason Collection, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nlireland/33048402845" target="_blank">National Library of Ireland</a>.</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Law and policy on abortion and
symphysiotomy took shape in the decades after independence, years in which the
Catholic Church emerged as an imposing character. In this era of nation-building,
Catholic social teaching informed the views of many in government, while
members of the Catholic hierarchy offered policy contributions on matters
integral to the creation of a Catholic society. Such input disproportionately affected
the lives of women and girls, as morality, sexuality, and maternity became
focal points for concern. These concerns were fundamental to the histories of
both abortion and symphysiotomy. Measures enacted conspired to circumscribe
women’s role to a narrow template of womanhood that revolved around the idea of
woman as ‘child-bearer’.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Symphysiotomy</span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">As Gallen notes, crucial to the project of
nation-building was the valorisation of the family based on marriage, and the
corresponding demonisation of women who became pregnant outside marriage.
Gallen’s exposition of gendered historical abuse underlines the primacy of marital
fertility in this abuse. Such ideologies had tangible consequences, in the
preference for symphysiotomy over Caesarean sections to preserve female
fertility. Symphysiotomy was often preferred as an alternative to Caesarean
sections, considered a risk to potential future pregnancies. Symphysiotomy was
a surgical procedure, requiring the partial cutting of fibres joining the pubic
bone to the pelvis. Gallen outlines figures from the 2012 State-commissioned
<a href="https://health.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Final-Final-walsh-Report-on-Symphysiotomy1.pdf" target="_blank">Walsh Report</a>, which estimated that 1,500 women had undergone the procedure
unknowingly from the 1940s to the 1960s. Its revived use in these decades
‘arose from a confluence of legal and religious gendered restrictions on
women’s bodily autonomy’ (page 265). The procedure itself exposed women to the
risk of health problems, and in many cases was carried out where it was
entirely unnecessary, and against the standards of best practice.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abortion</span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The primacy of fertility further influenced
the intersection between medicine and the law with regard to the status of
abortion, culminating in the insertion into the <a href="https://www.historyireland.com/20th-century-contemporary-history/breaking-the-silence-on-abortionthe-1983-referendum-campaign-2/" target="_blank">Constitution of Article 40.3.3in 1983</a>, which created a near-total prohibition on abortion. Through the
decades of Ireland’s independence, the legal position on abortion had created
the context of unwanted pregnancy and forced birth. As with symphysiotomy, the case
of abortion is illustrative of a wider historical failure in Irish law and
society to prioritise women’s agency. As Gallen writes in relation to consent
for medical procedures, there have often been priorities more highly valued by
the Irish state than women’s consent and agency, namely, the preservation of
women as child-bearers. Similarly, Enright notes that the Catholic template of
motherhood had been one of self-sacrifice, and for decades ‘Irish abortion law
has emphasised the protection of prenatal life in ways which efface women’s
personhood’ (Enright, page 58).<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Historical abuse</span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Gallen and Enright also elucidate the
painstaking efforts to have historical abuse acknowledged and redressed, and to
ameliorate and transform the ongoing harm caused by Ireland’s restrictive laws
on abortion.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Survivors of symphsiotomy</span></span></h3>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CUk55tQcGqk/XPWQ1Nn6rLI/AAAAAAAAB5U/eZMDNqvNCTM9hICSGBjl7s0IqjLoxub8gCLcBGAs/s1600/symphysio.cover.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="730" data-original-width="752" height="310" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CUk55tQcGqk/XPWQ1Nn6rLI/AAAAAAAAB5U/eZMDNqvNCTM9hICSGBjl7s0IqjLoxub8gCLcBGAs/s320/symphysio.cover.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In the case of symphysiotomy, on foot of
the 2012 Walsh Report, in 2014 the <a href="https://health.gov.ie/blog/press-release/publication-of-the-report-of-the-surgical-symphysiotomy-ex-gratia-payment-scheme/" target="_blank">Surgical Symphysiotomy Ex Gratia PaymentScheme</a> was established, administered by Judge Maureen Harding Clark. Gallen
highlights the efforts of the various groups that brought historical gendered
abuse into the political foreground. Organisations such as Survivors of
Symphysiotomy compiled victim-survivor testimony, often carrying out their own
research where no such efforts were forthcoming from successive Irish
governments.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Repeal of the 8th Amendment</span></span></h3>
</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XUosrZwRB8c/XPWTSa0jJDI/AAAAAAAAB5o/e34x79ll2eom14H5a5fQzBLDvJa45nICgCLcBGAs/s1600/1024px-Savita_Halappanavar_mural%252C_Dublin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1024" height="240" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XUosrZwRB8c/XPWTSa0jJDI/AAAAAAAAB5o/e34x79ll2eom14H5a5fQzBLDvJa45nICgCLcBGAs/s320/1024px-Savita_Halappanavar_mural%252C_Dublin.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A mural outside the Bernard Shaw pub in Portobello Dublin<br />
depicting Savita Halappanavar and calling for a yes vote<br />
in Ireland's referendum to remove the 8th Amendment.<br />
Photo by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Savita_Halappanavar_mural,_Dublin.jpg" target="_blank">Zcbeaton</a>, Creative Commons Licence.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Enright too overviews the legal twists and
turns which, in May 2018, finally led to the removal of Article 40.3.3 from the
Constitution, replaced with the 36<sup>th</sup> Amendment. The 36<sup>th</sup>
Amendment removes the constitutional ban on abortion and replaces it with a
statement of the government’s capacity to pass legislation on abortion. As
Enright notes, the legislation proposed in the wake of the May referendum has
caused a dramatic change to constitutional law on pregnancy in Ireland. Like
the recognition grudgingly given to victim-survivors of symphysiotomy, Enright
discusses the necessary and transformative effect of activism in the reform of
abortion law, overviewing the grass-roots campaign to remove the 8<sup>th</sup>
Amendment. Crucially, State recognition builds slowly from public awareness,
and public disquiet.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Continuing concerns</span></span></h3>
</div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">As the authors note, gains made in this
area are hard-won, and achieved against official obfuscation and denials of
harm or responsibility. Crucially, any gains achieved cannot be
taken-for-granted. In his chapter, Gallen emphasises how the State was, and
remains, resistant to many of the arguments made by victim-survivors. Gallen
outlines how the redress schemes falls short of international best practice in many
regards, and is highly critical of the judgemental tone of many of its reports.
Similarly, as the debate on the <a href="https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/2018/105/" target="_blank">Regulation of Termination of Bill </a>makes its way
through the Oireachtas, the danger that the hopes of real reform could be
stifled are very evident. Crucially, the intersections between legal and
medical regimes remain a point of vulnerability felt particularly by women. Indeed,
as recent developments regarding <a href="https://health.gov.ie/blog/press-release/minister-harris-publishes-the-implementation-plan-for-the-recommendations-of-dr-gabriel-scally-on-the-cervicalcheck-screening-programme/" target="_blank">CervicalCheck</a> have shown, the dangers of
gendered medical mistreatment continue to be a real concern in Ireland.
Although <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://www.bloomsburyprofessional.com/uk/law-and-gender-in-modern-ireland-9781509917211/" target="_blank">Law and Gender in Modern Ireland</a>
</i>outlines many of the positive reforms in recent years, it does so with a
note of caution.</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lynsey Black</span></span></h3>
<div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1GInJw-0jp0/XPWOOykdqbI/AAAAAAAAB44/USWi_wugrBclv267aQpKIJQ0YtwFbr2lwCLcBGAs/s1600/s200_lynsey.black.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="200" data-original-width="200" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1GInJw-0jp0/XPWOOykdqbI/AAAAAAAAB44/USWi_wugrBclv267aQpKIJQ0YtwFbr2lwCLcBGAs/s1600/s200_lynsey.black.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Lynsey Black</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></span><br />
<div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/law/news/warm-welcome-dr-lynsey-black" target="_blank">Lynsey Black</a> is a Lecturer in Criminology, Department of Law, Maynooth University. Lynsey researches in the areas of gender and punishment, the death penalty, and historical criminology. She completed her PhD in the School of Law at Trinity College Dublin in 2016. Her doctoral work examined the cases of women sentenced to death in independent Ireland. From 2016 to 2018, Lynsey was an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellow at the Sutherland School of Law, University College Dublin.</span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span></span>
<div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Her IRC-funded project took a comparative approach to capital punishment in Ireland and Scotland from 1864 to 1914. Recent collaborations include a public engagement and knowledge exchange project undertaken with Dr Lizzie Seal (University of Sussex) and Dr Florence Seemungal (University of the West Indies/University of Oxford) along with the United Nations Development Programme in Barbados. This ongoing collaboration is focused on reform of the death penalty regimes in Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago.</span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Lynsey has published recently in Law and History Review and the Social History of Medicine, and is editor of the collection, <i><b><a href="https://www.bloomsburyprofessional.com/uk/law-and-gender-in-modern-ireland-9781509917211/" target="_blank">Law and Gender in Modern Ireland: Critique and Reform</a></b></i> (Hart Publishing, 2019).</div>
</span></span></div>
<div>
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<br />UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-57598747625342795052018-04-10T06:31:00.000+01:002018-04-10T06:31:01.179+01:00Lecturer/Assistant Professor in the History of Medicine<h1 itemprop="title" style="color: #003989; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.9em; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
Lecturer/Assistant Professor in the History of Medicine (Modern)</h1>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3 style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<strong itemprop="hiringOrganization" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">University College Dublin</strong> - UCD College of Arts & Humanities</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div class="advert-details-box" style="background: url("images/global/boxed-bottom-bg.gif") right top repeat-y rgb(239, 245, 249); border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 1.1em; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">
<table class="advert-details advert-details-left" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top; width: 302.5px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Location:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">Dublin</td></tr>
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Salary:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">€52,325 to €82,267 <br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />£46,379.78 to £72,919.74 converted salary*</td></tr>
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Hours:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">Full Time</td></tr>
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Contract Type:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">Permanent</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="advert-details advert-details-right" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top; width: 242px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Placed on:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">4th April 2018</td></tr>
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Closes:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">20th April 2018</td></tr>
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="detail-heading" style="border: none; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top; white-space: nowrap;">Job Ref:</td><td style="border: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px; vertical-align: top;">010231</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="section" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12.144px; margin: 10px 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div itemprop="description" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">School:</strong> UCD School of History</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ddr6asQN9fA/WsxLrdmQFxI/AAAAAAAAAlQ/1T2nVntENaARRhL9dABB-LBYnOK4ceGZgCLcBGAs/s1600/61.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="168" data-original-width="110" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ddr6asQN9fA/WsxLrdmQFxI/AAAAAAAAAlQ/1T2nVntENaARRhL9dABB-LBYnOK4ceGZgCLcBGAs/s1600/61.gif" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<span style="font-size: 12.144px;">UCD School of History seeks to appoint a Lecturer/Assistant Professor in the History of Medicine (Modern). Any research specialization will be considered, but the School has a preference for candidates with a research area that stretches beyond Irish history.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
You will have a PhD in a relevant area, a track-record of high-quality research, demonstrated by publications. A proven ability to attract external funding and undergraduate/postgrduate teaching experience. Preference may be given to candidates with research and teaching interests that complement and reinforce existing strengths within the School.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
The appointment is a two-stage process, with UCD nominating the preferred candidate for consideration by the Wellcome Trust for a University Award. This candidate, on nomination to the Wellcome Trust, will produce a funding application, outlining a major research project with high quality outputs to be conducted within the University Award period. No appointment will be made without a successful application for a Wellcome Trust University award.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">95 Lecturer/Assistant Professor (above the bar) Salary Scale: </strong><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">€52,325 - €82,267 per annum</strong></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
Appointment will be made on scale and in accordance with the Department of Finance guidelines</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Closing Date:</strong> 17:00hrs (local Irish Time) on 20 April 2018</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Applications must be submitted by the closing date and time specified. </strong>Any applications which are still in progress at the closing time of 17:00hrs (Local Irish Time) on the specified closing date will be cancelled automatically by the system. UCD do not accept late applications.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Prior to application, further information (including application procedure) should be obtained from the UCD Job Vacancies website: <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/workatucd/" style="color: #00657c; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">www.ucd.ie/workatucd</a></strong></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 1em; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Note:</strong> Hours of work for academic staff are those as prescribed under Public Service Agreements. For further information please follow link below: <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/hr/t4cms/Academic%20Contract.pdf" style="color: #00657c; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">www.ucd.ie/hr/t4cms/Academic%20Contract.pdf</a></div>
</div>
</div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0John Henry Newman Building, University College Dublin, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3055658 -6.222074600000041827.783531299999996 -47.530668600000041 78.8276003 35.086519399999958tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-86789865071600945372017-11-06T07:00:00.000+00:002017-11-06T07:00:28.145+00:00When Does The Air Matter? by Janet Greenlees<h3>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Air Quality and the Working Environment</span></h3>
<i><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></i>
<i><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In this month's blog post <a href="https://www.gcu.ac.uk/gsbs/staff/drjanetgreenlees/" target="_blank">Dr Janet Greenlees</a>, Senior Lecturer at Glasgow Caledonian University, looks at the history of industrial air quality </span></i><i><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">and considers how it has variously been considered a worker's health, community health, and economic concern.</span></i><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">When Does Air Matter?</span></h3>
<div>
<i><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></i></div>
<div>
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<!--StartFragment-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Aabg8H8tC3U/Wf-ild8S42I/AAAAAAAAAgU/Tc_BLt36VUo2IcRx6Dqzmx8LyTekIJdpACEwYBhgL/s1600/janet1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="419" data-original-width="430" height="311" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Aabg8H8tC3U/Wf-ild8S42I/AAAAAAAAAgU/Tc_BLt36VUo2IcRx6Dqzmx8LyTekIJdpACEwYBhgL/s320/janet1.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Men and women weaving at the White Oak Mill in Greensboro, NC, 1909.<br />Courtesy of the National Museum of American History.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">When
do people think about the air quality inside buildings? Similar to other health
issues, the honest answer probably would be when either they or someone they
care about is affected by the poor air they breathe on a regular basis. That
being the case, the air quality in working environments could only then be of
concern to a relatively small number of people with any improvements sought by labour
and their representatives or employers seeking to increase productivity.
However, sometimes public health concerns about air quality can apply to both the
community and the working environment. How then, is the public health discourse
negotiated when the needs of industry can be affected? And, why do certain health
issues attract public or political interest and intervention, while others do
not? A simple answer might be that the only health issues to attract widespread
public interest are those which <i>can</i>
affect large numbers of people, such as contagious diseases. However, a closer
look suggests regional and national variations regarding responses to public
health concerns, even when the same issues and industries cross special boundaries.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">An Air Laden with Dust and Dirt</span></span></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">During
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, cotton cloth manufacturing grew
rapidly in New England, America and Lancashire, Great Britain. Both industries
subsequently declined, albeit at different rates. Cotton manufacturing was also
an industry where men and women worked alongside each other, performing the
same tasks for the same rates of pay and experiencing the same workplace health
hazards. The air these men, women and sometimes children breathed was laden
with dust and dirt, factory ventilation was poor and concerns were raised about
the spread of contagious diseases in such environments, particularly
tuberculosis. In addition, the noise from the machines was horrendous,
particularly in the weaving rooms, and could cause hearing loss and in some
cases, deafness. While since the earliest cotton factories, workers had been
aware that inhaling dust and dirt made them feel unwell and the noise was uncomfortably
loud, it was the late nineteenth century before the workplace became entwined
with public health reform, starting with fears about tuberculosis contagion.
Public and much scientific belief held that the tubercle bacilli attached
itself to dust and quickly spread disease throughout the mill. In the
progressive state of Massachusetts, the leading cotton cloth manufacturing
state, these fears about TB contagion secured both a legislative ban of a
particular technology, the suction shuttle, and selective employer cooperation
at improving ventilation. In contrast, and despite widespread belief that
England led the way with factory regulation, the tuberculosis risk in the
Lancashire mills was debated, but economic concerns prevented both regulation
and industrial reform.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 16px;">Worker Fatigue and Factory Ventilation</span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1sWH36oWMt4/Wf-mpjj36BI/AAAAAAAAAgc/GPvPbiY-ZFEOO005p1I4Nv-yE7HOoyHFQCLcBGAs/s1600/janet2.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="395" data-original-width="489" height="258" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1sWH36oWMt4/Wf-mpjj36BI/AAAAAAAAAgc/GPvPbiY-ZFEOO005p1I4Nv-yE7HOoyHFQCLcBGAs/s320/janet2.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Boott Cotton Mill of Lowells, Massachusetts. <br />Courtesy of the Lowell Museum Collection<span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; text-align: start;"><span>.</span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">During
the early twentieth century new health concerns arose, firstly surrounding the
importance ventilation and following the Great War, fatigue. Fatigue was not
simply related to long hours of labour but also to working in poorly ventilated
factories. In Massachusetts cotton towns, ventilation became a public health
campaign with improvements introduced in many public buildings, including
schools and government buildings and extending into workplaces. Some (but not
all) employers accepted the notion that a healthy worker was a more productive
worker. Ventilation attracted considerable British debate and scientific
interest, but while some communities sought to improve factory ventilation and
legislation imposed air quality standards on the cotton mills, in reality,
employers remained able to operate as they saw fit. Factory air quality was secondary
to the needs of industry. The Great War turned scientific, political and
medical interest to fatigue research, particularly in Britain. Textile workers
were included in the research; however, industrial decline meant political and
scientific interest in operative fatigue quickly faded. The same was true in
New England. During the 1920s, most of the cotton manufacturing industry
shifted to the southern states. Remaining northern firms were more concerned
about economic survival than the air quality in the mill. Worker and community
concern about mill air quality also declined as jobs took priority. Indeed,
wider economic concerns were increasingly influencing the public health agendas
of both countries.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Cotton Dust Inhalation</span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Nevertheless,
scientific and medical interest about occupationally specific health concerns
was growing, particularly surrounding cotton dust inhalation. However, the
physical symptoms of respiratory damage caused by dust inhalation mirrored
those of respiratory diseases common to many textile towns, including bronchitis
and pneumonia, namely, tightness of the chest, dyspnea and coughing. Therefore,
doctors found it very difficult to identify cases of byssinosis, the respiratory
disease caused by prolonged cotton or flax dust inhalation. While public
concern grew surrounding the widespread dust found in urban environments, such concerns
were not transferred to factory dust. There, dust remained an occupationally
specific hazard about which middle class social and political reformers had
little interest. This was only reinforced by the ambiguity surrounding diagnosis.
For workers, dust was an everyday reality that was simply part of the job and
unions sought compensation rather than reform. Britain was first to introduce
byssinosis compensation for selected male workers in 1941, although it was the
1970s before compensation was extended to all affected workers. By this time,
cotton manufacturing had virtually disappeared from the country. Despite
individual American doctors and scientists recognizing byssinosis cases, it was
1969 before the federal government introduced compensation for byssinosis
sufferers. Instead, public health concerns about dust remained confined to the
urban living environment and, when combined with the ambiguity surrounding
diagnosis, many workers were left to suffer on their own.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QWUfgaM-EaI/Wf-n_WMcqQI/AAAAAAAAAgk/GgDmJmWTragEjW8YmT1RgdRANR7AXKdKgCLcBGAs/s1600/janet3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="479" data-original-width="613" height="250" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QWUfgaM-EaI/Wf-n_WMcqQI/AAAAAAAAAgk/GgDmJmWTragEjW8YmT1RgdRANR7AXKdKgCLcBGAs/s320/janet3.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Interior of a Lancashire Cotton Mill with Mill <br />Workers at their Machines, Lancashire, c. 1890.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Managing the Health Impact of the Working Environment </span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Lastly,
noise, but not internal industrial noise, briefly became a public concern. Community
concerns about specific urban noises increased as the twentieth century
progressed. Societies were formed to tackle ‘unnecessary noise.’ However, the
continuous crashing of metal-tipped shuttles against metal loom frames in the
mills which caused hearing loss in many workers was ignored. Instead, communities,
medics and even operatives accepted that hearing loss was a risk attributable
to certain jobs, including weaving. Weavers adopted coping strategies to manage
the noise, including sign language and lip reading. Indeed, despite the fact
that other air quality issues had attracted public interest and industrial
reform, operatives regularly found themselves needing to adopt coping
strategies to manage the health consequences caused by working in confined
spaces with poor air quality. Other strategies included taking unpaid time off,
patent medicines, cooperative strategies, switching firms to where conditions
were better and exiting the industry. Air quality at work was important to
workers, but managing the health impact from the working environment comprised
only one part of their decision-making surrounding work, health and community.
Similarly, at different times, certain aspects of air quality became community
health concerns. Only at certain times did the two environments entwine.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Janet Greenlees</h3>
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<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-85OwDwZBbiE/Wf-dvtfgT0I/AAAAAAAAAgA/lfSI5zdbi-w52dra7uvjSZ-DRE_igDrfACLcBGAs/s1600/janet.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="180" data-original-width="180" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-85OwDwZBbiE/Wf-dvtfgT0I/AAAAAAAAAgA/lfSI5zdbi-w52dra7uvjSZ-DRE_igDrfACLcBGAs/s1600/janet.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Janet Greenlees</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.gcu.ac.uk/gsbs/staff/drjanetgreenlees/" target="_blank">Janet Greenlees</a> is a Senior Lecturer in History at Glasgow Caledonian
University, based in the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/humanities/schoolofhumanities/history/centreforthesocialhistoryofhealthhealthcare/" target="_blank">Centre for the Social History of Health andHealthcare</a>. Her research interests include women and work, public health and
the working environment and maternal health and she has published on all these
topics. The intersection of health in the community and work environment described
above is explored in greater detail in her book: <i>When the Air became Important: A Social History of the Working
Environment in New England and Lancashire, 1860-1960 </i>(Rutgers: Rutgers
University Press, forthcoming 2018). For more on gender and workers’ responses
to poor air quality at work, see <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-review-of-social-history/article/workplace-health-and-gender-among-cotton-workers-in-america-and-britain-c1880s1940s/83203AFE8FF2C75E13491D2DD6887434" target="_blank">‘Workplace Health and Gender among CottonWorkers in America and Britain, c. 1880s-1940s’</a>, <i>International Review of Social History, </i>61, 3 (2016), 459-83.</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-86206912095028580762017-07-27T15:39:00.000+01:002017-07-27T15:45:55.612+01:00Dr Sinead McCann: Receives Two Arts Council AwardsWe're delighted to announce that Dr <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/policy-workshop-the-prison-and-mental-health-from-confinement-to-diversion/project-team-2#Sinead" target="_blank">Sinead McCann</a> of the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> (CHOMI) has received two prestigious funding awards from the <a href="http://www.artscouncil.ie/home/" target="_blank">Arts Council of Ireland</a> for her projects <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/health-inside/" target="_blank">'Health Inside'</a> and <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/the-trial/" target="_blank">'The Trial'</a>.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jDbngPP_oVM/WXn5QtxoKII/AAAAAAAAAfo/qpWS9C-cl-Esqi1QY3ePW-4ZTUxolFbpACLcBGAs/s1600/Artscouncilaward.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="482" data-original-width="919" height="207" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jDbngPP_oVM/WXn5QtxoKII/AAAAAAAAAfo/qpWS9C-cl-Esqi1QY3ePW-4ZTUxolFbpACLcBGAs/s400/Artscouncilaward.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pictured from left to right: Dr Sinead McCann (UCD CHOMI), Dr Orlaith McBride <br />
(Director, Arts Council of Ireland), and Associate Professor Catherine Cox (Director,<br />
UCD CHOMI). Photograph taken at the announcement of the recipients of the Arts<br />
Council <span style="font-size: 12.8px;">of Ireland's Open Call programme awards, July 2017.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span id="goog_567316295"></span><span id="goog_567316296"></span><br />
<br />
Sinead, a noted Irish visual artist, received these awards in her role as a Public Engagement Officer on the Wellcome Trust Senior Investigator Award project, <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/about/" target="_blank">Prisoners, Medical Care and Entitlement to Health in England and Ireland, 1850–2000</a>. This project is led by co-Principal Investigators Associate Professor <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/drcatherinecox/" target="_blank">Catherine Cox</a>, Director of UCD CHOMI, and Professor <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/people/staff_index/hmarland/" target="_blank">Hilary Marland</a>, Director of the Centre for the History of Medicine, University of Warwick.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Inside Health: Thinking about Prisoners' Right to Healthcare</h3>
<div>
<a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/health-inside/" target="_blank">Health Inside: Thinking about Prisoners' Right to Healthcare</a> is a new public art project, due for exhibition in June 2018, which will focus on health and welfare provision in Irish and English prisons. The project is funded by the Arts Council of Ireland under its <a href="http://www.artscouncil.ie/News/Arts-Council-announces-funding-worth-over-%E2%82%AC1-million-for-11-new-projects-around-the-country-under-the-Open-Call-programme/" target="_blank">Open Call</a> programme. The Open Call programme funds one-off ambitious artistic projects by some of Ireland's leading artists and arts organisations.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
For further details see:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/2017/07/21/new-public-art-project-health-inside-thinking-about-prisoners-right-to-healthcare/">Health Inside: Thinking about Prisoners' Right to Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.artscouncil.ie/News/Arts-Council-announces-funding-worth-over-%E2%82%AC1-million-for-11-new-projects-around-the-country-under-the-Open-Call-programme/">Arts Council Announces Projects Funded under Open Call Programme</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>
The Trial</h3>
<div>
<a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/the-trial/" target="_blank">The Trial</a> is the working title for a new visual art project due for public exhibition in April 2018. It will focus on health and welfare provision in Irish prisons and access to healthcare following release from prison. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The project is funded by the Arts Council of Ireland under its <a href="http://www.artscouncil.ie/Funds/Arts-participation-project-Award/" target="_blank">Arts Participation Project Award</a> scheme. The project will be led by Dr Sinead McCann, who will work collaboratively with historian Dr <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/drhollydunbar/" target="_blank">Holly Dunbar</a> (UCD CHOMI), film-maker <a href="http://www.sixbetween.co.uk/#about" target="_blank">Mary Caffrey</a>, and participants from the <a href="https://twitter.com/BridgeDublin" target="_blank">Bridge Project</a>. The Bridge Project is a community-based organisation providing training and support programmes for high-risk violent ex-offenders in the greater Dublin Area. In April 2018, the team will produce a visual arts installation for public exhibition in <a href="http://kilmainhamgaolmuseum.ie/" target="_blank">Kilmainham Gaol Museum's</a> Old Court Room.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
For further details see:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/2017/07/27/new-participatory-art-project/">New Participatory Award Project: The Trial</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-45372419680768871012017-06-23T09:15:00.002+01:002017-08-11T11:34:08.036+01:00An Tobar: a Two-day Workshop on Sacred Springs and Holy Wells <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cdYj9JZ0UkE/WUzNwElbrcI/AAAAAAAAAfY/BSpfshrt2FcVcEKk4UtS00km1L3hyJKYACEwYBhgL/s1600/Logo.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="64" data-original-width="240" height="106" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cdYj9JZ0UkE/WUzNwElbrcI/AAAAAAAAAfY/BSpfshrt2FcVcEKk4UtS00km1L3hyJKYACEwYBhgL/s400/Logo.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Waterford Museum of Treasures, 26-27th June 2017</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>For further details please see: <a href="http://holy%20wells%20and%20sacred%20springs/">Holy Wells and Sacred Springs</a></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">This two-day workshop brings together scholars from across the world and from a variety of backgrounds and disciplines, all working on aspects of holy wells and sacred water. Most commonly a spring (but sometimes a pond, an entire lake, or even a hollow in a rock or tree where dew and rain collects), a holy well can possess miraculous healing qualities and is associated with supernatural beings, for example, being dedicated to a saint in Europe, associated with fertility goddesses in Africa, or the abode of boon-granting dragons in China. Water is sacred around the globe because water is life, and our critical need for water means hallowed wells and springs are found cross-culturally. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The social significance of sacred water bodies and their associated traditions is now an emerging subject of study. One area where Irish scholars in particular are making great advances is the medical and curative dimension to these sites. These papers represent exciting new research taking place across Ireland into the various ways holy wells and their landscapes have played and continue to play a role in approaches to health and wellbeing. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h4 style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Healing Waters and Therapeutic Landscapes </span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">North Leinster Holy Wells: A Medical Geography – Ronan Foley, Maynooth University </span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">One of the primary reputations of holy wells is their function as curative sites. Medical/health geographers are equally interested in the idea of therapeutic landscapes, places or spaces with established reputations for health and healing. With increased access to spatial information on the location of holy wells, and a parallel development in the mapping of folklore sources about specific cures, it has become possible for the first time to create a medical geography of holy wells in Ireland. Sources vary from traveller’s accounts and local historical sources to material from the Schools Collection and more recent surveys and ethnographic site visits. This paper describes the spatial distributions of specific cures in North Leinster as a representative location and considers the extent to which some wells had quite specific named curative powers, while others were panaceal. In addition, the location of the different cures across time and space will complement ongoing work at Trinity College Dublin on scientific testing of the waters to see if local geographical conditions can in part explain their distribution. Finally, the use of GIS and other geo-spatial mapping approaches identify the ongoing ways in which holy wells databases can be developed to promote the preservation of their narrative histories and ongoing curative performances. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr R<a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/people/ronan-foley" target="_blank">onan Foley</a> is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Geography at Maynooth University, Ireland. He has written extensively in the broad area of therapeutic landscapes, including Healing Waters: Therapeutic Landscapes in Historic and Contemporary Ireland (2010). He is currently the PI on an Irish Environmental Protection Agency project on Green/Blue Spaces and Health & an advisory partner on an ESRC project at the University of Exeter on Sensing Nature. </span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Tobair beannaithe agus ‘an leigheas’: Holy Wells and ‘the cure’ in 20th Century Ireland – Carol Barron, Dublin City University </span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The Schools Manuscript Collection of 1937-38, housed in the Folklore Department in UCD is believed to be the largest single medical folklore collection in Europe, and offers us a unique insight into the believes, practices and rituals surrounding ‘the cure’ and Holy wells in 20th Century Ireland. This paper examines a subsection of over 7,500 ‘cures’ sampled from the Schools Manuscript Collection from each barony of each of the 26 counties of Ireland, of which over 250 ‘cures’ are specific to Holy wells. This shared socio-cultural phenomenon is critically examined from a folkloristic/anthropological perspective, focusing on the specific disease states and their cultural importance to the health of Irish society at the time of recording and through history. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr <a href="https://www.dcu.ie/snhs/people/carol-barron.shtml" target="_blank">Carol Barron</a> is a lecturer in the Department of Nursing and Human Sciences at Dublin City University. She received her PhD in Anthropology from NUI Maynooth and her research focusses on child health. In particular, she has conducted extensive investigation into the use of Irish folk cures.</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Well-being: Holy Wells as Emergent Therapeutic Spaces – Richard Scriven, University College Cork</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Applying the concept of therapeutic landscapes to holy wells, this paper examines these sites as spaces of wellbeing that are forged through the interactions of people and place. Holy wells can be appreciated as sources of health offering spiritual and emotional support to individuals and communities. These experiences are generated in the meeting of bodies and practices, location and materials, and beliefs and emotions. Within these processes, well-being emerges with the site rather than being taking from it: there is a ‘taking place’ of health and wellbeing. Drawing on my fieldwork at holy wells across Munster, I explore the practices and meanings that contribute to the creation of these spaces of wellbeing and offer speculations on further engagements with this arena. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr <a href="http://research.ucc.ie/profiles/A010/102087081" target="_blank">Richard Scriven</a> is an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Geography, UCC. His research examines pilgrimage in contemporary Ireland as a socio-cultural phenomenon. </span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Holy Wells: The Evidence from Ulster – Finbar McCormick, Queen’s University </span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The experience of attending holy wells was composed of two main components, health and penance. While the curative nature of the wells is generally emphasised, the great majority of those who attended sites were not suffering for sickness or disability, - “every face beaming with the glow of health” as one observer noted. The main aim was to ensure the maintenance of good health for the coming year. This aspect of the ritual often involved washing or bathing in the well’s waters something that has for the most part disappeared in modern holy well rituals. The earliest place-name evidence for holy wells in Ulster and elsewhere, dating to the early Medieval period, indicates their association with health. It is likely that the penitential aspect of the wells is a later development. This paper considers a chronology for understanding the layered meanings of holy well rituals in Ulster.
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr <a href="http://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/finbar-mccormick%284b05a97b-c58f-48eb-bdc9-ce2fd60b6b86%29.html" target="_blank">Finbar McCormick</a> teaches Archaeology at Queen’s University Belfast and has recently been researching and excavating Struell wells in County Sown. Struell contains the most extensive set of buildings associated with a holy well in Ireland and can be documented back to the early Medieval period.
</span></i><br />
<br />
<h3>
Further Details</h3>
<div>
Please see: <a href="https://holywells.wordpress.com/" target="_blank">Holy Wells and Sacred Springs</a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></i>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0The Mall, Waterford, Ireland52.259553999999987 -7.107673999999974532.612094499999984 -48.416267999999974 71.907013499999991 34.200920000000025tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-2809752952907895432017-06-22T11:32:00.000+01:002017-08-11T10:17:46.867+01:00Disorder Contained: Theatre Performances, Coventry, Dublin, Belfast<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
A Theatrical Examination of Madness, Prison and Solitary Confinement</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><em><strong>Disorder Contained</strong>: A theatrical examination of madness, prison and solitary confinement </em>is a major public engagement activity for the Wellcome Trust funded project <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/chm/research/current/prisoners"><em>Prisoners, Medical Care and Entitlement to Health in England and Ireland 1850-2000</em></a>. It draws on the work of <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/assoc%20professorcatherinecox/">Associate Professor Catherine Cox (UCD)</a> and <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/people/staff_index/hmarland/">Professor Hilary Marland (Warwick)</a> and forms the final part of <em><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/2017/04/06/the-asylum-trilogy-theatrical-performances-exploring-the-history-of-mental-illness-and-its-institutions/">The Asylum Trilogy</a> </em>exploring various aspects of the history of mental health.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The production, created with Talking Birds and to be performed in Coventry, Dublin, Belfast, and London during 2017, will be accompanied by Expert Panel Discussions as well as Post-show Artistic Conversations which will be recorded along with the performance.</span><br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
Book Tickets</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Coventry from 29 June - 1 July: <a href="https://www.oxboffice.com/Search.aspx?pid=1171">Book tickets</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dublin from 12 - 14 July: <a href="https://smockalley.ticketsolve.com/shows/873575345?_ga=2.221063128.1926758239.1498045320-347501299.1497354729">Book tickets</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Belfast on 15 July: <a href="https://themaclive.com/event/disorder-contained">Book tickets</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">London from 9 October - 10 October: <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement/disorder-contained-theatre-tickets-and-dates/" target="_blank">Book Tickets</a></span></li>
</ul>
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
See Also</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement#introduction"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Show announcement</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement/research-informs-new-play-exploring-effect-of-solitary-confinement-on-mental-health/"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Press release</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement/disorder-contained-theatre-tickets-and-dates/"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Theatre dates and tickets</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement/2302-2/"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Audio flyer</span></a></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/category/disorder-contained/">Reflective blogs</a> (on translating historical research into accessible theatre)</span></li>
<li><a href="http://histprisonhealth.com/arts-projects/disorder-contained-a-theatrical-examination-of-madness-prison-and-solitary-confinement/disorder-contained-background-reading/"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Disorder Contained: Reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
<iframe allowtransparency="allowtransparency" frameborder="0" height="300" scrolling="no" src="//embeds.audioboom.com/posts/6016101-disorder-contained-audio-flyer/embed/v4?eid=AQAAAC6bS1llzFsA" style="background-color: transparent; display: block; max-width: 700px; padding: 0;" title="audioBoom player" width="100%"></iframe>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img alt="A5-flyer-entire-RGB" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-2315" height="449" src="https://histprisonhealth.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/a5-flyer-entire-rgb.jpg" width="640" /></span>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-77707661069751574902017-04-07T13:06:00.000+01:002017-04-07T14:54:41.581+01:00Alcohol, Medicine and Irish Society, c.1890-1970 by Alice Mauger<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Wellcome Trust Medical Humanities Fellowship</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A Wellcome Trust Postdoctoral Fellowship has been awarded to Dr. <a href="https://ucd.academia.edu/AliceMauger" target="_blank">Alice Mauger</a>. Her three-year project on ‘Alcohol, Medicine and Irish Society, <i>c</i>.1890-1970’ is being hosted by the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/chomi" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> (CHOMI). It is mentored by Dr. <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/drlindseyearner-byrne/" target="_blank">Lindsey Earner-Byrne</a>, Deputy Head of the School of History, UCD and sponsored by Associate Professor <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/assoc%20professorcatherinecox/" target="_blank">Catherine Cox</a>, Director of UCD CHOMI.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"></span>
</span><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zooDYRfq30M/WOeWxwO5x-I/AAAAAAAAAe8/tXC7nM6Dyg4-NeIiglSZlBkDVL5gS21YQCLcB/s1600/wellcomelogo.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="85" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zooDYRfq30M/WOeWxwO5x-I/AAAAAAAAAe8/tXC7nM6Dyg4-NeIiglSZlBkDVL5gS21YQCLcB/s320/wellcomelogo.png" width="320" /></span></a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The project explores the evolution of medicine’s role in framing and treating alcoholism in Ireland. It assesses the period from the 1890s, when acceptance of inebriety as a disease led to the creation of the short-lived inebriate reformatories, to the 1970s, when dedicated rehabilitation facilities were formed in response to the rising number of psychiatric patients diagnosed with alcohol-related illnesses.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br />Until now, the history of medicine has offered little reflection on the relationship between medicine and alcoholism in Ireland. While the ubiquitous “drunken Irish” stereotype, still prevalent today, has been evaluated from several viewpoints, we have yet to discover how international and Irish medical communities interpreted, informed and absorbed this label. By investigating care in asylums and inebriate reformatories, along with medical debates and shifting government policies, the project questions how the exchange of medical, government and lay ideas came to shape understandings and experiences of alcoholism in Irish society.</span>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wGkgl9Sv-xI/WOd9wQKS2VI/AAAAAAAAAek/zHSXS5QOoGAz1Z_P6J2-Lqcn3Y0ix2grACK4B/s1600/RTE%2BImage%2B-%2BMan%2Bdrinking%2Bbeer%2B%25281966%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wGkgl9Sv-xI/WOd9wQKS2VI/AAAAAAAAAek/zHSXS5QOoGAz1Z_P6J2-Lqcn3Y0ix2grACK4B/s400/RTE%2BImage%2B-%2BMan%2Bdrinking%2Bbeer%2B%25281966%2529.jpg" width="400" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Still image from the television show, 'Home Truths', featuring a segment <br />on alcoholism, <i>RTÉ, </i>7 December 1966. Image courtesy of the <i>RTÉ </i>Stills Department.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Context</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Despite the popularity of temperance and pioneer movements in Ireland since the mid-nineteenth century and high levels of abstinence reported into the 1950s, the Irish have traditionally been viewed as being especially prone to alcoholism. Irish emigrants were persistently portrayed as heavy drinkers, while the emergent Irish nationalist movement sought to associate abstinence with patriotism – some prominent members even claiming that the British encouraged Irish drinking to demoralise the population. In these ways, alcoholism was inextricably linked to theories or fears of Irish degeneration.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">This project questions the extent to which enduring stereotypes of the Irish as violent and drunken permeated contemporary medical conceptions of alcoholism, and whether this in turn influenced political and lay interpretations. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Internationally, several works have focussed on shifting medical concepts of addiction. This project situates Irish therapeutic and diagnostic trends alongside those in other western countries, including Britain, America and Australia. It also seeks to inform the extensive literature on the history of psychiatry, particularly degeneracy and ethnicity, and related discourses in Irish social history covering themes such as poverty, violence and the family.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
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<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Aims</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The project aims to make a significant contribution to the medical humanities, exploring historical sources to better understand and contextualise Irish society’s relationship with alcohol. In doing so, it hopes to inform present-day social and cultural concerns.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /> Keys findings from the project will be presented in a monograph, journal article and a series of posts on the CHOMI blog, as well as papers given at relevant forums. <br /><br /> In 2019, Alice will organise an interdisciplinary workshop on ‘Alcohol, Medicine and Society’ at CHOMI, inviting policy makers and academics from Ireland and overseas. A call for papers for this event will feature on this blog. <br /><br /> Alice has also planned a one-month knowledge exchange to the Centre for History in Public Health in the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine to engage with prominent experts on addiction history including Professor Virginia Berridge and Dr. Alex Mold.</span><br />
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</span>
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<h3>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Biography</span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uHgxU1HC_BM/WOd_KOkpdfI/AAAAAAAAAew/g-fZUsnD1hQ9y_QFSpwGE70AULb-HOwlwCK4B/s1600/UCD%2BStaff%2BEmail%2BPic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i><img border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uHgxU1HC_BM/WOd_KOkpdfI/AAAAAAAAAew/g-fZUsnD1hQ9y_QFSpwGE70AULb-HOwlwCK4B/s400/UCD%2BStaff%2BEmail%2BPic.jpg" /></i></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr Alice Mauger</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></i>
<div>
<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Dr Alice Mauger is a postdoctoral fellow at the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, University College Dublin. She was awarded a PhD by UCD in 2014 for her thesis which examined public, voluntary and private asylum care in nineteenth-century Ireland. Prior to this she completed the MA programme on the Social and Cultural History of Medicine at the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, UCD. Both her MA and PhD were funded by the Wellcome Trust. Dr Mauger has published on the history of psychiatry in Ireland and is currently finalising her first monograph: The Cost of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century Ireland: Public, Voluntary and Private Asylum Care.</span></i></div>
</div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-44351741068934509752017-03-13T11:09:00.000+00:002017-03-13T12:15:12.640+00:00A Forgotten Episode of International Health by Dora Vargha<i>In this month's blog post, <a href="http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/staff/vargha/" target="_blank">Dr Dora Vargha</a>, University of Exeter, uncovers the neglected</i><i> </i><i>role of the Socialist Bloc and Eastern Europe in the history international public health. Dora argues that rectifying this omission is essential to capture a complete picture of international and global public health in the crucial era following the postwar settlement. </i><br />
<br />
<h3>
The Establishment of the World Health Organization</h3>
<br />
The establishment of the World Health Organization is no doubt a crucial and fundamental moment in the history of international (and global) public health. The leadership, ideas and early decades in the unfolding Cold War can be assembled through biographies of Director-Generals, the Organizations own chronicle of its first decades and through histories of malaria eradication. However, certain equally important aspects of the early years of the WHO, like the sudden exit of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe shortly after the establishment of the organization merit little more than a mention in these histories.<br />
<br />
<h3>
The Socialist Bloc and the Missing History of the WHO</h3>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-3ub7KRvyyBQ/WMJr3dilZtI/AAAAAAAAAdA/f3yyn0X6NqIZ4ay1EtT2W8FGQwp0r0hOgCLcB/s1600/Andrija_%25C5%25A0tampar_1970_Yugoslavia_stamp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-3ub7KRvyyBQ/WMJr3dilZtI/AAAAAAAAAdA/f3yyn0X6NqIZ4ay1EtT2W8FGQwp0r0hOgCLcB/s320/Andrija_%25C5%25A0tampar_1970_Yugoslavia_stamp.jpg" width="261" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Andrija
Stampar (1888-1958), born in Drenovac, Croatia,<br />
was a key figure in the history of twentieth-century public<br />
health and a leading figure in the League of Nations Health<br />
Organisation. Commemorative Stamp of Anrija Stampar,<br />
issued 1970, Yugoslavia (Public Domain).</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
This omission from the historiography is not entirely surprising. The Socialist Bloc, and Eastern Europe in general has been, until recently, missing from international health narratives on the whole, despite foundational Eastern European figures in its history such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1522122/" target="_blank">Andrija Stampar</a>, key member of the League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO) and president of the First World Health Assembly, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4151934/" target="_blank">Ludwik Rajchman</a>, director of the LNHO and founder of UNICEF. Often seen as a politically homogeneous area under complete Soviet control in the postwar era, Eastern European countries have not been considered to have agency in international health during the Cold War.<br />
<br />
But the history of international and global health has a lot to gain by including the Socialist Bloc in the picture. This unexplored history points to questions whether international health always happens within organizational structures of international agencies and through philanthropic entities such as the Rockefeller Foundation; what the stakes were in this Cold War divide in the formative years of the WHO; and the extent to which we can talk about a unified response within the Socialist Bloc to diplomatic and public health challenges in their time outside of the organization.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Socialist Networks and International Public Health</h3>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9iYx6LrbCN4/WMNWJpoqMAI/AAAAAAAAAeI/w_A6Z41D9pMyvjTYkWuUx2gYmKpdqB5zwCLcB/s1600/youngsunhong.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9iYx6LrbCN4/WMNWJpoqMAI/AAAAAAAAAeI/w_A6Z41D9pMyvjTYkWuUx2gYmKpdqB5zwCLcB/s1600/youngsunhong.jpg" /></a></div>
Considering alternative international public health, in this case socialist networks, is crucial in getting a complete picture of postwar international public health and its effect on modern global health. The historiography of internationalism has been going under a rapid change by <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/contemporary-european-history/article/div-classtitleconclusion-beyond-liberal-internationalismdiv/D5DA16651E13ED26DC8DC0D4EE1E3FBF">including alternative internationalisms and focusing on socialist exchange in ideas</a>, practices and knowledge. Much of this new research has addressed issues of development, culture and education. Many have called attention to <a href="http://socialismgoesglobal.exeter.ac.uk/">Eastern Europe’s role in transcontinental collaboration and have placed contributions to postcolonial projects in focus</a>. With some notable exceptions, such as Young-Sun Hong’s work on <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=1107095573">East German development projects</a>, or <a href="http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/staff/antic/">Ana Antic’s</a> research on transcultural psychiatry in Yugoslavia, health has mostly escaped the attention of these new histories.<br />
<br />
Through the lens of Hungary, the last country to re-join the WHO in 1963, my research aims to put Eastern Europe in the focus of international health inside and out of the World Health Organization. I seek to explore what happened to international health in Eastern Europe, outside of the purview of the usual suspects: international agencies and non-governmental organizations, like the Rockefeller Foundation, how complete was the break with liberal internationalism and what, if anything, took its place.<br />
<br />
It was not long after Eastern European states successfully joined that the Soviet Union decided to leave the WHO. The Russians were not very eloquent in their reasoning, they cited the mammoth bureaucracy, high member fees and the political influence of the United States in the WHO. The exit of the Soviet Union, followed by the whole Socialist Bloc challenged the proclaimed universality of the newly formed WHO and the centrality of technical expertise in opposition to political allegiance. The quick deterioration of the East’s relationship with the organization seems to fit neatly into a narrative of the escalating Cold War and increase of the Soviet Union’s hold on Eastern Europe. However, when inspected in detail, the reasons for the exit of these countries was more complex and had to do as much with expectations of what an international health agency should do, as with foreign policy. <br />
<br />
<h3>
Grievances towards the WHO</h3>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Iy9GpEJf4tg/WMM6ujmfK4I/AAAAAAAAAd4/_608WFUcIjMKKtCD8nTd4x9Ss6Uk9qEXgCLcB/s1600/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T00826%252C_Berlin%252C_5._CDU-Jahrestagung_%2528Parteitag%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Iy9GpEJf4tg/WMM6ujmfK4I/AAAAAAAAAd4/_608WFUcIjMKKtCD8nTd4x9Ss6Uk9qEXgCLcB/s320/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T00826%252C_Berlin%252C_5._CDU-Jahrestagung_%2528Parteitag%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Josepf Plojhar, (right), Minister for Health, Czechoslovakia.<br />
Also pictured, Tadeusz Michejda (left), Minister for Health, Poland;<br />
Luitpold Steidle (right), Minister for Health, GDR.<br />
Berlin, 14 September 1950. <a href="http://www.bundesarchiv.de/index.html.de" target="_blank">Bundesarchiv</a>.<a href="http://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/archives/barchpic/search/_1489189710/?search[view]=detail&search[focus]=1" target="_blank"> Bild 183-T00826</a><br />
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The grievances towards the WHO had been many and from an Eastern European perspective, were mostly justified. The overpowering American influence undoubtedly played a large role in this. Certain issues, such as Americans barring access to vital drugs, such as penicillin in Poland and Czechoslovakia, became especially sore points for Eastern European politicians and physicians. In his memoir from 1978, Tibor Bakács, Hungarian virologist and representative to the second World Health Assembly in 1949 gave a dramatic account of the appeal of Josef Plojhar, Czechoslovak health minister and roman catholic priest.<br />
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Socialist countries did not have their own penicillin plants back then, they had to import the needed amount for hard currency from the West. The Czechs, in order to become independent, purchased a whole penicillin plant from the Americans before the political turn of February 1948, which according to the contract the US had to deliver in two installments. The first one arrived, but the second one, which was to be delivered after the political turn, was held back by the Americans. Father Plojhar, wearing priest’s attire, asked the delegation of the United States in front of the Assembly, why they had not honored the contract. The American delegate, putting aside all civility (and with the knowledge of the subservient voting machines behind its back) just briefly said: "Contract, no contract, you turned socialist, you get nothing!" The president of the assembly then put the Czechoslovak question to vote, and apart from the 5 yes votes of the socialist countries present, the issue was overruled by the majority. The vassals "voted well" - it was a real American decision. I wouldn’t have thought that professional issues, what’s more, questions of health can be distorted so under political duress.<a href="#1" name="top1"><sup>1</sup></a> </blockquote>
<br />
While Plojhar’s speech does not appear in the minutes, the American delegate, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2030782/pdf/pubhealthreporig01077-0096.pdf" target="_blank">Leonard A. Scheele</a> Surgeon General referred to it and dismissed the claim by stating that the equipment in question is not necessary for the production.<br />
<br />
Attributing Eastern European countries’ decision to leave solely to Cold War political alignments would be a mistake, however. Recent research on the years of communist takeover has shown that the relationship of the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries was a complex one and certain aspects of that relationship were very much open ended. We cannot readily assume a master plan from the Soviet side, with which Eastern European states quickly fell in line with. Moreover, while the overwhelming influence of the United States in the WHO and pressure from the Soviet Union no doubt playing an important part, countries like Hungary had other, substantial reasons for discontentment.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Second World Health Assembly</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hXajZUPsu4g/WMJyNoM4XcI/AAAAAAAAAdQ/Ao-ep49XbRkRQ7SDC4XlcNgEXh0FklJ4ACLcB/s1600/Second%2BWHA.tiff" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hXajZUPsu4g/WMJyNoM4XcI/AAAAAAAAAdQ/Ao-ep49XbRkRQ7SDC4XlcNgEXh0FklJ4ACLcB/s320/Second%2BWHA.tiff" width="194" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Second World Health Assembly, Rome,<br />
13 June to 2 July 1949: Decisions and <br />
resolutions: plenary meetings verbatim records: <br />
committees minutes and reports: annexes.<br />
Courtesy of <a href="http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85600" target="_blank">WHO: IRIS</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The Socialist Bloc did not immediately follow the Soviet Union in stepping out of the WHO. The <a href="http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85600" target="_blank">minutes </a>of the second World Health Assembly in 1949 give a glimpse of the short time when Eastern European countries took part in the WHO’s work without the presence of the Soviet Union in the organization. In their speeches, Eastern European delegates acknowledged the merits of the WHO and the overall significance of the organization.<br />
<br />
However, there were problems: several Eastern European delegates criticised the WHO for its one size fits all approach. Apart from issues with access to penicillin, the Czechoslovak delegate called on the WHA to rethink the universality of certain public health issues and instead, consider health priorities on a national level. The Hungarian Health Minister, István Simonovits pointed to the fact that while Hungary considers fellowships to be crucial as a form of pursuing international public health, many of its fellows are regularly denied entry visas to WHO member states and are therefore unable to attend conferences they are invited to. Simonovits also considered visiting lecturers to be less useful for Hungarian public health: “Even the best lecturer was hardly more useful than a good article, because in many cases the lecturer had no knowledge of our special local problems.”<br />
<br />
The criticism of several of the Eastern European delegates point to a different expectation of the tasks and responsibilities of international health organizations. In the late 1940s the countries in question were still in a horrid state, their hospitals bombed, medical equipment seized or destroyed, with extreme housing problems and crumbling infrastructure. In countries with extreme shortages of medication, physicians and buildings fit to house patients, and with no access to the Marshall Plan or other forms of aid, the policy of the WHO to give technical assistance instead of material aid seemed pointless, offensive even. As Plojhar, the Czechoslovak delegate put it: "It is more urgent for us to dispose of some public-health problems than to receive good advice."<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xse3EASUA2k/WMJy0qH4ToI/AAAAAAAAAdU/Zt1e19tUMv8IMzxh0sfcnYrY7FDSA4bFQCLcB/s1600/Budapest.1949.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="251" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xse3EASUA2k/WMJy0qH4ToI/AAAAAAAAAdU/Zt1e19tUMv8IMzxh0sfcnYrY7FDSA4bFQCLcB/s320/Budapest.1949.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The buildings of the Foreign Ministry and War Office in Budapest, 1949. <br />
Photograph by Carl Lutz. <a href="http://fortepan.hu/?view=all&lang=en" target="_blank">Foto:Fortepan</a>/Archiv Für <br />
Zeitgeschichte Eth Zürich / Agnes Hirschi. Photo ID: <a href="http://fortepan.hu/?view=query&q=K%C3%BCl%C3%BCgyminiszt%C3%A9rium&lang=en&img=105808" target="_blank">105808</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3>
Withdrawal from the WHO</h3>
<br />
The second World Health Assembly was the last one that Eastern European countries attended for almost a decade. Romania, Albania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary left the organization in 1950. Some of the delegates, like Plojhar warned of this possibility at the Second WHA in 1949. But perhaps the withdrawal was not a clear choice. Instead of issuing a warning, the Hungarian delegate used his speech to plead for the inclusion of socialist approaches to public health, and to remedy the situation that caused the Soviet Union to leave the organization.<br />
<br />
The withdrawal of such a substantial number of countries from the WHO placed the question of membership into focus and pointed to broader questions of supranationality and state sovereignty. The WHO navigated its practice among two legal school of thoughts: one of which considers such an international organization to be supranational, making a unilateral withdrawal impossible once a member voluntarily joined, and another considering membership in the international organization to be dependent on its alignment with foreign policy. The United States favoured the latter interpretation, its Congress upholding the right to withdraw within a year of joining the WHO. The organization itself adopted a position of compromise between the two schools, introducing “inactive membership” for withdrawing states. This latter solution also helped save the international organization some embarrassment, when the Soviet Bloc exited the WHO.<br />
<br />
Not only did the practice of international public health in Eastern Europe continue with the budding socialist internationalism within the Bloc, but countries like Hungary continued to participate through interaction and collaboration with the West. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/547716/summary">Being out of the WHO, divided by the Iron Curtain also did not mean that the region was isolated in terms of international health</a>. If we shift our focus from viewing internationalism in public health from the perspective of international organizations and governments, and turn to the agents of internationalism themselves, we find that the sites of international collaboration in public health were as varied as the people acting as internationalists. Families and virologists, hospital directors and religious scholars were actively involved in shaping international collaboration in research, treatment and access to technology.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Decentering Narratives of Internationalism and Global Public Health</h3>
<br />
Geographically and conceptually de-centring narratives of internationalism and global public health, especially ones tied to the Cold War, is crucial for a nuanced understanding of this formative era. By bringing Eastern Europe into the focus and considering alternative internationalisms, new faces, practices and relationships become visible, which, in the end, can help us piece together a very messy and often confusing picture of international and global health in the 20th century.<br />
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<h3>
Dora Vargha<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Dora Vargha</td></tr>
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</h3>
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<i><a href="http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/staff/vargha/" target="_blank">Dr Dora Vargha</a> is a lecturer in the Medical Humanities at the University of Exeter. Previously, she has held research fellowship positions at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin and at Birkbeck, University of London. She is an acclaimed authority on the history of global health and biomedical research in the Cold War era with a particular focus on Eastern Europe. </i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>Dora's work has been widely published in leading peer-reviewed journals including Contemporary European History, and <a href="http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/13639/7/13639.pdf" target="_blank">Bulletin of the History of Medicine</a>. She has recently completed the manuscript for her forthcoming monograph Iron Curtain, Iron Lungs: Governing Polio in the Cold War which explores a series of polio epidemics in Hungary in the context of international Cold War politics. She has recently embarked upon a new research project, for which she received a Wellcome Trust Seed Award, titled, 'Socialist Medicine: An Alternative Global Health History'.</i><br />
<br />
<i>Dora is the recipient of many scholarly awards including the<a href="http://www.chstm.org/news/dora-vargha-awarded-aahms-j-worth-estes-prize" target="_blank"> J Worth Estes Prize</a> from the American Association for the History of Medicine and the <a href="http://www.icohtec.org/resources-prizes-young-scholars.html#lis" target="_blank">Young Scholar Book Prize</a> from the International Committee for the History of Technology. She is the founding editor of and a contributor to the <a href="https://ceehmnetwork.wordpress.com/about/" target="_blank">Central and Eastern European History of Medicine Network Blog</a>. Dora is also a collaborating member of the <a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/reluctantinternationalists/people/dora-vargha/" target="_blank">Reluctant Internationalist</a> research group, a Wellcome-Trust funded project that is researching the history of public health and international organisations. </i><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
<a name="1"><b>1 </b></a>Tibor Bakács, <i>Egy Életrajz Ürügyén</i> (Budapest: Kossuth Könyvkiadó, 1978).<a href="#top1"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
</span>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-80045331828789218182017-02-15T11:34:00.000+00:002017-02-15T11:34:24.322+00:00Event: Mind-Reading 2017<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">MIND-READING 2017: MENTAL HEALTH AND THE WRITTEN WORD</span></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><b>Venue:</b> Studio Theatre, dlr LexIcon</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><b>Date: </b>10 March 2017</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><b>Conference Organisers:</b></span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Dr. Elizabeth Barrett (UCD) and Dr. Melissa Dickson (Oxford).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><b>Keynote Speakers:</b></span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Prof. James V. Lucey (TCD),</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Prof. Fergus Shanahan (UCC) and</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Prof. Sally Shuttleworth (Oxford).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Introduction</span></span></h3>
<div class="p3" style="text-align: left;">
<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">This one-day programme of talks and workshops seeks to explore productive interactions between literature and mental health both historically and in the present day. It aims to identify the roles that writing and narrative can play in medical education, patient and self-care, and/or professional development schemes.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Bringing together psychologists, psychiatrists, interdisciplinary professionals, GPs, service users, and historians of literature and medicine, we will be asking questions about literature as a point of therapeutic engagement. We will explore methods that can be used to increase the well-being and communication skills of healthcare providers, patients and family members.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Conference Coordinator:</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Victoria Sewell (UCD)</span></span></div>
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<span class="s2"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">child.psychiatry@ucd.ie</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Book <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/medicine/whatson/title,358023,en.html"><span class="s3">HERE</span></a> with UCD </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span><br /></span></div>
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<span class="s2"><a href="http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/mind%20seminar%20L%20PDF.pdf"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Full Programme<span class="s4"></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="p2" style="text-align: left;">
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UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0Haigh Terrace, Moran Park, Dún Laoghaire, Co. Dublin, A96 H283, Ireland53.292914499999988 -6.1318923999999733.61329099999999 -47.440486399999969 72.972537999999986 35.17670160000003tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-69705927298491794952016-11-25T14:36:00.000+00:002016-11-25T14:36:59.700+00:00Public Engagement Officer Posts<i>Two new Public Engagement Officer positions have been announced on the Wellcome Trust Senior Investigator Award Project, <a href="https://histprisonhealth.com/">'Prisoners, Medical Care and Entitlement to Health in England and Ireland, 1850–2000'</a>, led by Principal Investigators <a href="https://histprisonhealth.wordpress.com/project-team-2#Catherine">Dr Catherine Cox</a> (<a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi/">UCD CHOMI</a>) and <a href="https://histprisonhealth.wordpress.com/project-team-2#Hilary">Professor Hilary Marland</a> (<a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/chm/">CHM, University of Warwick</a>).</i><br />
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<h3>
Role</h3>
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<i>The successful applicants will act as key intermediaries between the project and relevant partners in the arts and policy, play a lead role in promoting the project through various media outlets and in the planning, organisation and promotion events. They are seeking applicants with previous experience of working in public or policy engagement.</i><br />
<h3>
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ASCrug8ObDQ/VUN6iKJKAEI/AAAAAAAAAQM/BFBm1XP995A4pxZ1NpULOwtXjBdEtQBeQCPcB/s1600/convicts%2Bexercising%2Bin%2Bpentonville%2Bprison.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ASCrug8ObDQ/VUN6iKJKAEI/AAAAAAAAAQM/BFBm1XP995A4pxZ1NpULOwtXjBdEtQBeQCPcB/s320/convicts%2Bexercising%2Bin%2Bpentonville%2Bprison.gif" width="315" /></a></div>
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<h3>
Public Engagement Officer, CHOMI, University College Dublin</h3>
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This Public Engagement post will be based at the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi" target="_blank">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a>, School of History, University College Dublin. This part-time position will last for 24 months commencing from shortly after 9 January 2017. </div>
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Salary: €33,900 per annum pro-rata (40% pro-rata, i.e. €13,560 per annum part-time)</div>
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Those interested should contact Dr Catherine Cox prior to making an application.</div>
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<b>Closing Date: 4 December 2016</b></div>
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Reference Number: 008854</div>
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<br /></div>
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For further details and to apply, please see: <a href="https://www.universityvacancies.com/university-college-dublin/public-engagement-officer-part-time-ucd-school-history-temporary-5776" target="_blank">Public Engagement Officer, UCD</a></div>
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<br /></div>
<h3>
Public Engagement Officer, CHM, University of Warwick</h3>
<div>
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This Public Engagement post will be based at the <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/chm/" target="_blank">Centre for the History of Medicine</a>, Department of History, University of Warwick. This part-time position will last for 24 months commencing from shortly after 9 January 2017.<br />
<br />
Salary: £29,301 – £38,183 per annum pro-rata (0.4 FTE).<br />
<br />
<b>Closing Date: 1 December 2016</b><br />
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For further details and to apply, please see: <a href="https://atsv7.wcn.co.uk/search_engine/jobs.cgi?owner=5062452&ownertype=fair&jcode=1613533&vt_template=1457&adminview=1" target="_blank">Public Engagement Officer (78714-106)</a><br />
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UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-16888265217650921032016-09-06T09:14:00.001+01:002017-09-04T13:04:26.492+01:00Sharing of Medical Ideas and Information among Early Modern Practitioners by Benjamin Hazard<div class="p1">
<i>In this month's blog, <a href="https://ucd.academia.edu/BenHazard">Dr Benjamin Hazard</a> (School of History, UCD), writes about a recent scholarly meeting which he co-convened at the <a href="http://edwardworthlibrary.ie/">Edward Worth Library</a> (1733) in association with <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi/">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine</a> (CHOMI). The meeting was entitled: '<a href="https://www.academia.edu/26538282/_The_Sharing_of_Medical_Ideas_and_Information_Among_Early-Modern_Practitioners_A_Project_Meeting_to_be_held_at_the_Edward_Worth_Library_1733_in_association_with_UCD_Centre_for_the_History_of_Medicine_in_Ireland_Tuesday_2_August_2016?auto=download">The Sharing of Medical Ideas and Information among Early Modern Practitioners</a>'.</i><br />
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<h3>
Early Modern Medicine</h3>
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To raise awareness of early modern medicine and to develop networks for future research, the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland (CHOMI) and the Edward Worth Library presented a conference on Tuesday 2 August entitled 'The Sharing of Medical Ideas and Information among Early Modern Practitioners'. Open to the public with free admission, the event was held at <a href="http://dr-steevens-hospital-a-history.edwardworthlibrary.ie/">Dr Steevens’ Hospital</a>, founded in 1733. As one of the organisers of the event, I had the pleasure of introducing the meeting and welcoming the large audience in attendance. I'd also like to take this opportunity to thank once again to the Trustees of the Worth Library, to <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/history/research/centres/early-modern/eaboran.php">Dr Elizabethanne Boran</a>, the Librarian, and to <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/research/people/history/drcatherinecox/">Dr Catherine Cox</a>, the Director of UCD CHOMI, for their support. <a href="http://edwardworthlibrary.ie/exhibitions-at-the-worth/smaller-exhibitions/english-cathedrals-and-antiquities/">Nicole Fleming</a> of Brown University, Visiting Intern at the Edward Worth Library, assisted with proceedings on the day.<br />
<br />
With the sharing of medical knowledge as the principal theme, the topics for discussion concentrated on the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <a href="http://www.spd.dcu.ie/site/history/james_kelly.shtml">Professor James Kelly</a> MRIA of Dublin City University chaired the first sessions.<br />
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<h3>
Viringus and Military Medicine</h3>
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Dr Hazard explained that early modern physicians held themselves in high regard but <a href="https://thesaurus.cerl.org/cgi-bin/record.pl?rid=cnp00348320" target="_blank">Johannes Walterius Viringus</a>, a professor of medicine in Leuven in the late sixteenth century, did not limit the propagation of medical knowledge to his fellow physicians. Dr Hazard described how Viringus wrote a manuscript of medical recipes for military chaplains in Spanish Flanders. This offered them the means for self-medication and illustrates the varied definition of the term practitioner. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Benjamin Hazard (speaker) with Professor James Kelly (chair)<br />
at the meeting, 'The Sharing of Medical Ideas and Information<br />
among Early Modern Practitioners'<br />
(Dr Steevens' Hospital, 2 August 2016).</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<h3>
Medical Doctors and Classical Learning</h3>
</div>
Drawing attention to the composition of medical writings, Dr Jason Harris of the <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/cnls/projects/">Centre for Neo-Latin Studies</a>, University College Cork, explained that communicating in Latin was integral to the sense of identity among physicians. In his paper, Dr Harris examined the use of Latin in a book published by Johannes Walterius Viringus in 1597. Medical doctors were expected to demonstrate their grasp of Classical learning. Familiarity with Latin and Greek helped students recognise medical terms and also distinguished physicians from surgeons.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Book Merchants, Auctions, and the Medical Mind</h3>
<br /></div>
<div class="p1">
Dr Elizabethanne Boran presented detailed findings from her investigation of book merchants' catalogues according to criteria such as medical specialities and languages. This shows how the purchase of books containing scientific information helped to shape the medical mind. Auctions reflected book sellers' efforts to anticipate changing tastes while catering for as broad a readership as possible.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Professor Ole Grell</h3>
</div>
<br />
<div class="p1">
Chaired by Dr Catherine Cox, the keynote lecture was given by the renowned historian of early-modern medicine, <a href="http://fass.open.ac.uk/people/opg3">Professor Ole Peter Grell</a> of the Open University and the Royal Historical Society. Professor Grell considered the part that <a href="http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/31897/title/The-World-in-a-Cabinet--1600s/">Olaus Wormius</a> (1588-1654) played in the Republic of Letters by corresponding with key thinkers in distant places. Wormius, a Danish physician, antiquarian and natural philosopher, is recognised as one of the last great polymaths. Widely-travelled, he completed his medical studies in Basel, Padua, Montpellier and Paris before being called to Copenhagen. An avid collector, he kept his own <a href="http://geologi.snm.ku.dk/english/exhibitions/all_things_strange_and_beautiful/">museum </a>and applied the information gathered in his correspondence to improve medical methods.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
Dr Benjamin Hazard</h3>
<br />
<i>Dr Benjamin Hazard (School of History, UCD) was born in London in 1971. He specialises in early-modern history. Among other matters, his research and publications deal with medical humanities with a particular focus on military medicine, its interaction with civilian life, and methods of education. In 2009, Benjamin published his monograph <a href="http://irishacademicpress.ie/product/faith-and-patronage-the-political-career-of-flaithri-o-maolchonaire-c-1560-1629/">Faith and Patronage: The Political Career of Flaithrí Ó Maolchonaire c.1560–1629</a>.</i></div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0Steeven's Ln, Ushers, Dublin, Co. Dublin, Ireland53.344765 -6.2914153000000452.7375125 -7.58230880000004 53.952017500000004 -5.0005218000000395tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-64351081453185367832016-05-04T13:48:00.001+01:002016-05-04T23:55:00.133+01:00Local Health Authority Day Nurseries by Angela Davis<h3>
Local health authority day nurseries in post-1945 England </h3>
<i><br /></i>
<i>In this month's blog <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/chm/people/staff/angeladavis/">Dr Angela Davis</a> (University of Warwick) considers the fate of local health authority day nurseries in England from 1945 to the 1970s. While the national trajectory during this period may have been one of decline, this trend masks considerable local variation with some authorities regarding the day nursery as an intrinsic part of the health service and others considering them, at best, marginal.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<br />
<h3>
War Nurseries</h3>
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-slbkf4hMV38/VyncPaBBdSI/AAAAAAAAAZ4/geu52HiEO1o4GxBZPzMsJx1vAmWG1qSewCLcB/s1600/War%2Bnursery.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="238" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-slbkf4hMV38/VyncPaBBdSI/AAAAAAAAAZ4/geu52HiEO1o4GxBZPzMsJx1vAmWG1qSewCLcB/s320/War%2Bnursery.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Handing over the Women's Voluntary Service War Nursery,<br />
Manor House, Wendover, Buckinghamshire, England, UK,<br />
1941, <span style="font-family: "interface" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 27.0001px;">© </span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">IWM (<a href="http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205203963">D 2424</a>).</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In a Ministry of Health Circular in 1945 the Minister of Health for England and Wales declared that the right policy to pursue would be to positively discourage mothers of young children under two from going out to work and to make provision for children between two and five by way of Nursery Schools and Nursery classes.<br />
<br />
From the numerous and widely used local authority administered <a href="http://www.historyandpolicy.org/opinion-articles/articles/childcare-bill-2015-2016">day nurseries</a>, commonly known as ‘<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369848613001696">war nurseries</a>’, which were open to all working mothers during World War Two (in 1944 there were around 1,450 full-time nurseries and 109 part-time nurseries), in the late 1970s the day nursery service had become a much more limited form of provision intended to prevent children being harmed by inadequate homes or parents and to avoid the last resort of resort of residential care, including children from difficult family backgrounds, one-parent households, and some handicapped children.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Local Variation</h3>
<br />
However these national trends figures mask the very real variation at the local level that took place. State-provided day nurseries remained the responsibility of Ministry of Health in the years after the war (responsibility was finally transferred to the Social Services Departments in 1971), and administered through the local health authorities. The local health authority day nurseries were under the ultimate control of the <a href="http://jpubhealth.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/03/14/pubmed.fdt131.full">medical officer of health</a> for the area and these medical Officers of Health had very different attitudes about the importance of the provision of day nurseries. While some thought the service was an intrinsic part of the health and welfare provision in their area others were keen to cease providing the service altogether. Throughout the period the provision offered by London Local Authorities was higher than anywhere else in the country. In contrast, the provision offered in rural areas was the most limited. In order to consider these local differences more fully, will look at three case studies – Coventry, Camden (London) and Oxfordshire.<br />
<br />
<h3>
London Borough of Camden</h3>
<br />
The London Borough of Camden was created in 1965 from the former area of the metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead, Holborn, and St Pancras, which had formed part of the County of London. In 1948 there were 23 day nurseries in the health division area 2, which most closely resembled the later borough of Camden. These nurseries had places for 1,398 children. The divisional health officer explained that many of the wartime nurseries that had been requisitioned for the duration of the war had since been returned to their original uses. As a result, the number of children on the waiting list, which numbered 3,121, far exceeded the number of places available and therefore <a href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/moh/report/b19882944/48#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=48&z=-0.2068%2C-0.0674%2C1.72%2C0.7123">a scheme of priorities</a> for admissions to day nurseries has been drawn up to take into account of economic and health factors. The cost to parents at this time was negligible. A standard charge of 1s. a day was made for each child placed which covered the cost of the midday meal. However, even the following year, the tone of the reports was changing with the London County Council Medical Officer now stressing that the high cost of maintaining a child in a day nursery caused concern, and attempts were being made to effect economies. Instructions were issued as to economical ordering of supplies and preparation of meals. By 1951 it had become policy that the total day nursery provision should be kept at its existing level, although notably no expansion was planned. Moreover attendances at the nurseries were to be continually under review and closures and amalgamations were to take place when possible. The ratio of staff to children reduced. Nurseries were now to be closed on Saturdays and the priorities for admission were tightened.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Policy Reversal</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dkGz-1cSdQU/VyndbDFClfI/AAAAAAAAAaA/3LOUUrabtjkI_0XnQ1DtFVagLt94PtoBACLcB/s1600/Camden%2BMOH%2Breport.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dkGz-1cSdQU/VyndbDFClfI/AAAAAAAAAaA/3LOUUrabtjkI_0XnQ1DtFVagLt94PtoBACLcB/s320/Camden%2BMOH%2Breport.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span id="goog_584495766"></span><a href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/moh/report/b19882944#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0&z=-0.9962%2C-0.0546%2C2.9721%2C1.2308">Annual Report</a> of the Medical Officer of Health<br />
and Principal School Medical Officer for the<br />
year 1965 by Wilfrid G. Harding (1966)<span id="goog_584495767"></span>. Wellcome<br />
Library, <a href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/moh/">London's Pulse</a>: Medical Officer of Health<br />
Reports 1848-1972.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Interestingly, in 1953 there seemed to be a reversal in policy. The priorities for admission were softened. A third group was introduced, namely the children of working mothers whereby the parents income exceeded 9 pounds a week. Why did this occur? It seems clear that the council were concerned about falling attendances that had resulted from a central government order increase the charges for day nurseries with the charges for children at the nurseries was raised to a minimum of 4s. a day. As demand grew in the years that followed, however, the number of children admitted from <a href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/moh/report/b19882944/48#?m=0&cv=48&c=0&s=0&z=0.4383%2C0.0724%2C1.6049%2C0.6647">priority group 3</a> was again reduced. Other groups were also seen as more needy, particularly those from ethnic minority backgrounds, but also children with disabilities. However there was no growth in the number of day nurseries to match the increased demand. In 1965, the <a href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/moh/report/b19882944#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0">report</a> of the new Camden health authority, reported that the council had ten nurseries providing 541 places for children under five. This compared to the 23 nurseries with places for 1,398 that had existed in 1948.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>
Cutting Costs</h3>
<br />
So what do these reports from Camden reveal? Firstly, they indicate that provision declined rapidly after World War Two, but mainly from a desire to cut costs. Nowhere is it mentioned that the policy of the council was that the place of young children was to be with their mothers. The priorities for admission reflected this overriding economic concern. Priorities were tightened when the nurseries were over-subscribed and reduced when attendances fell. The authority seemed to be guided above all by a desire for the day nurseries to be cost effective and seemed to view them a worrying expense rather than an essential part of their service.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Coventry</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-7N_TcmQOn-E/Vyne-UaVViI/AAAAAAAAAaM/MMwPWLjZBcM0JJmrkLs7EMy0LNWbSRhdQCLcB/s1600/Arthur%2BMassey.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-7N_TcmQOn-E/Vyne-UaVViI/AAAAAAAAAaM/MMwPWLjZBcM0JJmrkLs7EMy0LNWbSRhdQCLcB/s320/Arthur%2BMassey.jpg" width="217" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Portrait of Sir A. Massey.<br />
<a href="http://wellcomeimages.org/">Wellcome Library, London</a>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
But not all authorities viewed day nurseries in the same way. In his Annual Report from 1944 <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033350638800457">Arthur Massey</a>, the Coventry Medical Officer of Health stated that, ‘There is no doubt that there is a useful place in the peace-time maternity and child welfare scheme for day nurseries, for they offer valuable medical, nursing and educational care to the children in attendance. Moreover they could provide for the occasional care of children of mothers needing respite from the continual round of domestic work’ (p. 7).<br />
<br />
It is clear from the outset that Coventry envisaged a wider for their day nurseries than the belief of central government that they should only be for children in ‘special need’. In consequence every effort was made to keep the nine day nurseries that had existed during the war in operation in the years that followed.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Reducing Charges</h3>
<br />
Coventry health authority also reacted in a very different way to London in response to Ministry of Health Circular No. 23/52 which increased the daily charges of the nurseries. Like London, Coventry quickly saw a fall in numbers, but unlike London, who responded by opening up the nurseries to non-priority groups, Coventry responded by reducing the charges. Moreover, rather than aiming to simply maintain provision at the level of the early 1950s as London did, Coventry wanted to increase day nursery provision. They were certainly not seeking to reduce their number of nurseries. Indeed the poor state of the current nurseries, the need to build new nurseries, and the increasing demand upon places was a constant refrain in the annual reports. By the mid-1960s, the medical officer reported that they could no longer offer places even to those deemed of high priority. Moreover in his report from 1969 the then Medical Officer of Health <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119323/">Thomas Clayton</a> clearly indicated that he would like to reduce the stringency of the priorities imposed, stating: ‘The slowly declining birth rate has as yet had little effect on the under 5 population and the static day nursery provision is gradually becoming more inadequate. (p. 38). Moreover, unlike in Camden, the Medical Officer could report in 1970 that the number of day nurseries in Coventry had remained at the same level as at the end of the war. In 1948 there were 9 nurseries with 88,650 attendances. In 1970 there were still nine nurseries with 89,437 attendances.<br />
<br />
<h3>
An Essential Part of Health Authority Provision</h3>
<br />
So from the Coventry experience we can see that some local health authorities took a far more active approach to the provision of day nursery provision than my other case studies. The Coventry Medical Officer of Health saw day nurseries as an essential part of health authority provision in the area. Rather than seeking to reduce the service or being concerned about the cost of providing day nurseries, he was constantly wanting to expand the number of nurseries and places he could offer, and indeed make them available to children without ‘special needs’. Moreover, he was clearly frustrated with the lack of encouragement he received in this ambition from central government.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Oxfordshire</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y5EyRaEqMZU/VyngYau-zfI/AAAAAAAAAaY/yPHHzRKjARAZoT11KxGrezUYOqZaUO3-gCLcB/s1600/Watlington%2BPark%2BChildren.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y5EyRaEqMZU/VyngYau-zfI/AAAAAAAAAaY/yPHHzRKjARAZoT11KxGrezUYOqZaUO3-gCLcB/s320/Watlington%2BPark%2BChildren.jpg" width="236" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Nursery School: Watlington Park Children<br />
in Wartime - Five Lithographs by Ethel Gabain.<br />
<span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">© IWM (<a href="http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/10172">Art.IWM ART LD 263</a>).</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The provision of day nurseries in Oxfordshire was considerably lower than in either Camden or Coventry. From the seven war nurseries that had been open throughout the county in 1945, only 2 remained in 1948, accommodating about 80 children.<br />
<br />
The Medical Officer noted that they were ‘primarily intended for mothers who are forced by economic circumstances to go out to work. By 1951, there was only one day nursery provided by the county, in Banbury, accommodating 40 children. In 1960 the Medical Officer of Health was questioning the nursery’s continued existence. While the nursery did stay open, it was clearly not viewed as an essential service.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Better off at Home with Mother</h3>
<br />
The reason for this ambivalence may be in the Oxfordshire local health authority’s attitude towards the institutional care of children. They clearly felt that young children were better off with their mothers and in his 1966 report stated: ‘attendances under the age of two and a half are discouraged’ (pp. 18-19). However, the annual reports also documented the growing demand for day nursery care in Oxfordshire, which the Medical Officer of Health attributed to the increasing urbanisation of Oxfordshire. However, even in 1970, there remained only one nursery in the County. So it is clear that day nursery provision was considered as being rather marginal to the Oxfordshire local health authority. They were unsure about whether they should provide such a service and indeed whether young children should be in day nurseries at all.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Variable Provision</h3>
<br />
The provision local health authority day nurseries in postwar England was highly variable. It depended on the different material conditions and make-up of the populations in different areas, but also upon on local policies and personalities. For example the Medical Officer in Coventry championed day nurseries in a way that was not seen in Camden and which may account for the continued level of nursery places throughout the decades after the wars.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Angela Davis</h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Y8UoF1f5QUk/VynkSONzX9I/AAAAAAAAAak/k9_oqrLEP54uwtZ-xwBagEdxemlmhWJvgCLcB/s1600/Angela-Davis-use.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Y8UoF1f5QUk/VynkSONzX9I/AAAAAAAAAak/k9_oqrLEP54uwtZ-xwBagEdxemlmhWJvgCLcB/s200/Angela-Davis-use.jpg" width="160" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Angela Davis, Centre for the<br />
History of Medicine, School of<br />
History, University of Warwick.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<i><a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/chm/people/staff/angeladavis/">Angela Davis</a> is a Senior Research Fellow (Wellcome University Award) in the Department of History at the University of Warwick. Her research interests concern <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/research_shows_50/">parenthood</a> and childcare in Britain and Israel and the use <a href="https://blogs.warwick.ac.uk/angeladavis/entry/oral_history_and/">oral history</a>. Her book <a href="http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719090653/">Pre-school Childcare, 1939-2010: Theory Practice and Experience</a> was published with Manchester University Press in 2015.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>You can listen to a podcast below of a talk by Angela, <a href="http://www.chomi.org/developing-bodies-and-minds-childrens-experiences-of-preschool-childcare-britain-c-1939-1979/">'Developing Bodies and Minds: Children's Experiences of Preschool Childcare, Britain c.1939-1979'</a>, given as part of the <a href="http://www.chomi.org/category/podcasts/chomi-seminar-series/">CHOMI Seminar Series</a>, 29 January 2015.</i><br />
<br />
<i><br /></i>
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UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com1England, UK52.3555177 -1.174319700000069142.4994672 -21.828616700000069 62.2115682 19.479977299999931tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-29259217394869431552016-04-11T14:00:00.002+01:002016-04-13T10:51:58.792+01:00The Cost of Insanity by Alice Mauger<h2>
The Cost of Insanity: Public, Voluntary and Private Asylum Care in Nineteenth-Century Ireland</h2>
<div>
<i>How did Irish medical practitioners and lay people interpret and define mental illness? What behaviours were considered so out of the ordinary that they warranted locking up, in some cases never to return to society? Did exhibiting behaviour that threatened land and property interests, the financial success of the family or even just that which caused embarrassment eclipse familial devotion and render some individuals 'unmanageable'? These questions are addressed i</i><i>n this month's post by <a href="https://ucd.academia.edu/AliceMauger">Dr Alice Mauger.</a> In 2014, Alice successfully completed her doctoral thesis at the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi">UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> on domestic and institutional provision for the non-pauper insane in Ireland during the nineteenth century.</i></div>
<div>
<i><br /></i></div>
<h3>
The Evolution of Asylum Care</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-F3UDrfouDSM/VwuZeBFBpfI/AAAAAAAAAZM/5cqe8PGnHvkUZ4JSBrAs-ikyLvcVg73yg/s1600/am1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-F3UDrfouDSM/VwuZeBFBpfI/AAAAAAAAAZM/5cqe8PGnHvkUZ4JSBrAs-ikyLvcVg73yg/s320/am1.png" width="245" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Paying patients in the Richmond District Asylum (1885-1900).<br />Pictures courtesy of the Grangegorman Community Museum</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The nineteenth century saw the evolution of asylum care in Ireland. While <a href="https://www.stpatricks.ie/history-archives">Jonathan Swift</a> famously left most of his fortune to found Ireland's first lunatic asylum in 1746, it would be 70 years before the government followed his lead. In 1817 it enacted legislation permitting districts throughout Ireland to form asylums and by 1900, twenty-two such hospitals accommodated almost 16,000 patients. Growing demand for care for other social groups prompted the decision, in 1870, to admit some fee-paying patients, charged between £6 and £24 per annum, depending on their means. Out of this 16,000 only around 3% actually paid for their care. Private asylums, meanwhile, charged extremely high fees that were out of reach for the majority of society (usually several hundred pounds per year) and by 1900, thirteen private asylums housed 300 patients. Occupying a sort of middle ground, voluntary asylums, established by philanthropists, offered less expensive accommodation to those who could not afford high private asylum fees (from around £24 to a few hundred pounds). By 1900, these four voluntary asylum had outstripped the thirteen private ones, providing for 400 patients.<br />
<br /></div>
<h3>
The Road to Committal</h3>
<div>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RVCsgljCXAU/VwuaI_DZ4mI/AAAAAAAAAZU/xFWj3mm_kRQzuuvkxAY7il0Cuii5UtQ3A/s1600/am2.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RVCsgljCXAU/VwuaI_DZ4mI/AAAAAAAAAZU/xFWj3mm_kRQzuuvkxAY7il0Cuii5UtQ3A/s320/am2.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Advertisement for Farnham House, Private Asylum and<br />Hospital for the Insane, Finglas Dublin. <br />Source: <i>Medical Directory </i>(London, 1899), p. 1616.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Families were usually responsible for determining when it was time to commit a patient, where to send them and how much they should pay for their care. Factors such as cost, spending power, standard of accommodation, a hospital's religious ethos and the sort of people confined there all coloured these decisions. Broadly speaking, certain social groups (of the same religion) chose certain asylums.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Once admitted, patients were assessed by the medical authorities who determined a cause for their illness along with a diagnosis. This process was based on the medical certificate obtained prior to committal; evidence supplied by the patient and family; and the medical practitioner's own views. The two primary nineteenth-century diagnoses – <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539549/">mania and melancholia</a> – reveal relatively little about reasons for committal. The causes named, however, were far more colourful and wide-ranging and expose much about contemporary perceptions of the life events or circumstances that led to mental illness and therefore committal. Given causes encompassed a range of 'psychological' factors such as grief, bereavement, business or money anxieties and religion, and physical influences including accidents and injuries, physical illnesses, hereditary and alcohol. These later two were the most frequently employed, demonstrating widespread medical understandings of the physical nature of insanity. However, many patients, families and increasingly asylum doctors, reported that fears about financial stability, land interests and the state of the economy had caused the illness.<a href="#1" name="top1"><sup>1</sup></a> In reality, it was often these anxieties that resulted in committal, especially among those with a degree of resources, such as white-collar workers, shopkeepers and farmers.<br />
<br />
<h3>
The Case of John D</h3>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Cu6akUxalrU/VwuarpSX-iI/AAAAAAAAAZY/-a4BOucs-CMx1helsX2a_IFzHI8rtzSZg/s1600/am3.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Cu6akUxalrU/VwuarpSX-iI/AAAAAAAAAZY/-a4BOucs-CMx1helsX2a_IFzHI8rtzSZg/s320/am3.png" width="205" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Entries in Casebook 2, <i>c.</i>1898.<br />Source: St John of God's Hospital, <br />Patient Records.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
Land and property interests certainly featured in the case of John D. In 1891, at the age of 77, John was committed to the <a href="http://www.independent.ie/regionals/enniscorthyguardian/news/st-senans-142year-history-nears-its-end-27236581.html">Enniscorthy lunatic asylum</a> by this two sons. John's sons provided details of his personal history to the asylum authorities; details which were later transcribed by the asylum's Resident Medical Superintendent, Dr <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/199/3/218">Thomas Drapes</a>, into his case notes. Reportedly a 'healthy old man', the first symptom noticed by John's sons was that he wanted to marry his servant, a girl of twenty:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Says if he doesn't marry her his soul is lost and that he'll burn in hell ... he is very supple and has often tried to take away across the country to get to this girl ... Son says he won't allow bedclothes to be changed or bed made since the girl left, as he says no one can make it but her.<a href="#2" name="top2"><sup>2</sup></a></blockquote>
While John was a patient in the asylum, this girl visited him disguised as his niece. Following this, John's sons told Drapes to prevent any further communication between the pair. They were very much against the proposed marriage, insisting that 'she and her family are a designing lot' and 'all encourage her to get him to marry her'. One son informed Drapes that in his opinion his father would have married '"anything in petticoats" for past two years or so'. Allegedly, the girls he proposed to were 'not at all suitable, and "strealish" in appearance and habits'.<br />
<br />
Underlying this narrative were anxieties about John's property. A farmer and a shopkeeper, John was certainly not a pauper. His maintenance in the asylum was £18 per annum and while he was in the asylum, John presented Drapes with a further £16 'to keep for him'. The sons made clear their anxieties about the family business. On one visit they stated that lately, their father 'was not capable of properly doing business in his shop'.<br />
<br />
The real motivation for committing John, however, became clear when the patient later informed Drapes that 'he gave his sons up his land, but wished to retain his shop for himself and get a wife to mind it for him'. John also gave what Drapes termed a 'rational explanation' for his romance with the servant girl, explaining that:<br />
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
the girl had been so spoken of in connection with him that her character had suffered, and that if he did not make her the only reparation he could by marrying her, he would suffer in the next world.<a href="#3" name="top3"><sup>3</sup></a></blockquote>
<br />
Just two months after his committal Drapes discharged John. In his notes he wrote that this was 'greatly against the wishes of his sons, but I have not been able to find any distinct evidence of his insanity'.<a href="#4" name="top4"><sup>4</sup></a> By 1901, John, now aged 87, had married a woman of 27, possibly the servant girl. However, ten years later, it was his son who resided at this address with his own wife and six children suggesting that he had ultimately inherited the property.<a href="#5" name="top5"><sup>5</sup></a> The most plausible explanation for this outcome was that John's young wife had not borne him any children, which would have prevented her from being entitled to property rights following his death.<br />
<br />
<h3>
Conclusions</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The case of John D adheres comfortably both to contemporary public hysteria over the perceived vulnerability of private patients to wrongful confinement and commonly held representations of the rural Irish.<a href="#6" name="top6"><sup>6</sup></a> Although some historians have emphasised the detrimental impact of issues such as the consolidation of landholdings, emigration, land hunger and Famine memories on emotional familial bonds, historians of psychiatry have identified the 'range of familial emotional contexts' which asylum patients came from.<a href="#7" name="top7"><sup>7</sup></a> Families often sent letters querying treatment, offering advice and enclosing food and money for patients.<a href="#8" name="top8"><sup>8</sup></a></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Yet, in cases where property or business interests were at stake, these factors tended to eclipse those of familial devotion. In fact, the high numbers of fee-paying patients who were unable to control their business or function in their profession suggests this was a major reason for committal. While the extent to which John D actually struggled in his shop is difficult to ascertain, it is conceivable that a number of other relatives' claims regarding patients' incapacity to work were genuine.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The association between working life and mental illness speaks volumes about contemporary society's interpretation of insanity and what drove families to commit relatives to asylums. In relation to social status, those unable to maintain their position within their given occupation were defined in terms of this failure. Land disputes and an inability to manage one's affairs threatened to shatter emotional familial bonds. In these cases, families may have viewed committal as a last resort in order to protect their resources or livelihood. After all, in smaller rural towns, relatives would have little control over the actions or interactions of a mentally-ill person positioned behind the shop-counter or at a farmers' market.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Dr Alice Mauger</h3>
<div>
<i><br /></i></div>
<div>
<i><a href="https://ucd.academia.edu/AliceMauger">Dr Alice Mauger</a> was awarded a PhD by University College Dublin in 2014 for her thesis which examined institutions for the non-pauper insane in nineteenth-century Ireland. Prior to this she completed the <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240">MA programme on the Social and Cultural History of Medicine</a> at the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland, UCD. Both her MA and PhD were funded by the Wellcome Trust. Dr Mauger has published on the history of psychiatry in Ireland and is currently writing a monograph stemming from her doctoral research.</i></div>
<div>
<i>
Below you can listen to Alice's talk, entitled 'The Cost of Insanity', given on 4 February 2016 as part of the UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland Seminar Series.</i></div>
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<hr width="80%"><p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
<a name="1"><b>1 </b></a>Fears of poverty and unemployment among pauper asylum patients are discussed by: Akihito Suzuki, 'Lunacy and labouring men: narratives of male vulnerability in mid-Victorian London' in Roberta Bivins and John V. Pickstone (eds), <i>Medicine, Madness and Social History: Essays in Honour of Roy Porter</i> (Basingstoke, 2007), p. 118; and, Catherine Cox, <i>Negotiating Insanity in the Southeast of Ireland, 1820-1900</i> (Manchester, 2012), pp 59, 121.<a href="#top1"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="2"><b>2 </b></a>Clinical Record Volume No. 3 (Wexford County Council, St Senan's Hospital, Enniscorthy, p. 264)<a href="#top2"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="3"><b>3 </b></a><i>Ibid.</i><a href="#top3"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="4"><b>4 </b></a><i>Ibid.</i><a href="#top4"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="5"><b>5 </b></a><i><a href="http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/">Census of Ireland 1901</a>.</i><a href="#top5"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="6"><b>6 </b></a>David Fitzpatrick, 'Marriage in post-Famine Ireland', in Art Cosgrave (ed.), <i>Marriage in Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1985), pp 116-31; Timothy Guinnane, <i>The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850-1914</i> (Princeton, 1997).<a href="#top6"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="7"><b>7 </b></a>Cox, <i>Negotiating Insanity</i>, pp 108-9; Guinnane, <i>The Vanishing Irish</i>, pp 142-43, 230-35.<a href="#top7"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="8"><b>8 </b></a>Oonagh Walsh, 'Lunatic and criminal alliances in nineteenth-century Ireland' in Peter Bartlett and David Wright (eds), <i>Outside the Walls of the Asylum: The History of Care in the Community 1750-2000</i> (London and New Brunswick, 2001), p. 145.<a href="#top8"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
</span>UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0Ireland53.41291 -8.2438899999999649-17.498846999999998 -174.18138999999996 90 157.69361000000004tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-44261571671252917382016-03-18T21:06:00.000+00:002016-03-18T21:07:03.596+00:00Wellcome Trust Master's Award Scheme<h3 style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Wellcome Trust Master's Award Scheme</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UXPXQVPVBtA/VuxsofyxSeI/AAAAAAAAAWk/WrEG1qtvW58lEKTYPwjIbllFaShWYTehA/s1600/wellcome.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" height="94" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UXPXQVPVBtA/VuxsofyxSeI/AAAAAAAAAWk/WrEG1qtvW58lEKTYPwjIbllFaShWYTehA/s200/wellcome.jpg" title="" width="200" /></a><span lang="EN-GB">The
UCD Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland (CHOMI) seeks a candidate for
the 2016 <a href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Humanities-and-social-science/Funding-schemes/Masters-awards/" target="_blank">Wellcome Trust's Master's Award</a> scheme, offering fees and living
allowance for one year of taught Master's study in the history of medicine or
medical humanities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">UCD
can propose one candidate per year to the Wellcome Trust, which considers
applications from various institutions and determines whether funding is
awarded. It is a highly competitive international competition. CHOMI has a
strong track record of successful applications to the Master's scheme and many
of the successful applicants have gone on to secure funding for doctoral
studies. Details of the CHOMI MA programme are available at </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240">here</a></span><span lang="EN-GB">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Applications
from international students are welcome. In addition to a living allowance, the
scheme covers full fees for all Republic of Ireland, UK and European Union
students, or full overseas fees for students from a list of </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Biomedical-science/Application-information/wtx033620.htm">eligible
countries</a></span><span lang="EN-GB"> .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Application Process: Step 1</span></b></h3>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LY1uZ20FkG8/VuxtI0nPZGI/AAAAAAAAAWo/Pa59dQTyUhYR3GqsWNXa0pysmZYumf5Mg/s1600/Logo.CHOMI.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LY1uZ20FkG8/VuxtI0nPZGI/AAAAAAAAAWo/Pa59dQTyUhYR3GqsWNXa0pysmZYumf5Mg/s200/Logo.CHOMI.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">CHOMI
runs an internal selection process to identify the strongest candidate to put
forward for the Wellcome Trust competition. We now invite expressions of
interest. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">
Applicants must be strongly committed to developing a research career, and must
have, or be predicted to have, at least a very high upper second-class degree
at undergraduate level or an international equivalent .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">If
you would like to express an interest or discuss the possibility of an
application, please contact the Director of CHOMI, Dr Catherine Cox (<a href="mailto:catherine.cox@ucd.ie">catherine.cox@ucd.ie</a>) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">The
deadline for preliminary applications is Monday 11 April 2016. Preliminary
applications should be sent to <a href="mailto:catherine.cox@ucd.ie">catherine.cox@ucd.ie</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Your
preliminary application should include:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
</div>
<ol>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">750-word statement
outlining your relevant experience to date and your priorities for future
research. If you have already developed a more concrete research proposal,
please describe it here.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Current CV, 1 to 2
pages in length</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Application Process: Step 2</span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">If
you are successful in your application to the internal CHOMI competition, you
will then work with a CHOMI staff member in developing your final application
to the Wellcome Trust. You will need to
be available to work on completing the proposal to a deadline in April, in
order to meet the Trust's final deadline of Tuesday 3 May.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Full
details of the Trust's policy on selection and entry requirements are provided </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Humanities-and-social-science/Funding-schemes/Masters-awards/index.htm">here</a></span><span lang="EN-GB">. </span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0Ucd Post Office, University College Dublin, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3053439 -6.220653999999967753.304750899999995 -6.2219144999999676 53.3059369 -6.2193934999999678tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-90430714152995791062016-03-04T17:35:00.000+00:002016-03-04T18:51:46.207+00:00MA in the History of Welfare and Medicine in Society<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<b><a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">MA History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a></b><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
Programme Director: <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/historyarchives/staff/catherinecox/home/">Dr Catherine Cox</a></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
catherine.cox@ucd.ie</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
About the MA</h3>
<div>
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-G17O_4ezmN8/VtnEWD_4CDI/AAAAAAAAApQ/jXplhUo5b1E/s1600/tb.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-G17O_4ezmN8/VtnEWD_4CDI/AAAAAAAAApQ/jXplhUo5b1E/s320/tb.jpg" width="304" /></a>Medicine, illness and welfare occupy a central place in all our lives. The MA is designed to enable you to understand the place of medicine and welfare in society and history (<i>c</i>1750-1980) and engage with critical debates through various media, including film, literature, and art, amongst others. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The modules on the programme explore the main trends within welfare and medical history from social history, gender history, post-colonial history to individual experiences of poverty, and of illness throughout history. You will explore how medicine and welfare regimes and policies culturally constructed conceptions of femininity and masculinity.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The modules are taught through seminar and you will develop expertise in presenting, analytical thinking, effective communication, and writing with clarity and precision. You will also partake in a lively seminar series and benefit from a vibrant postgraduate research community.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-XKefuAliP38/VtnA8z9iTmI/AAAAAAAAApE/jFTmNK_mBQU/s1600/event.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="137" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-XKefuAliP38/VtnA8z9iTmI/AAAAAAAAApE/jFTmNK_mBQU/s320/event.jpg" width="320" /></a>The dissertation, at the core the <a href="http://ma%20in%20the%20history%20of%20welfare%20%26%20medicine%20in%20society/" target="_blank">MA</a>, allows you to engage your own research-based interests.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Your fellow students will be from diverse academic backgrounds and the MA is popular among healthcare professionals keen to understand the historical contexts that shaped current practices and systems.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The MA has a reputation for excellence and is taught be lecturers with international profiles in the field. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Kx8irMTQdQ/Vtm9jSsJmnI/AAAAAAAAAow/X3xtDlkROnQ/s1600/ccox.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Kx8irMTQdQ/Vtm9jSsJmnI/AAAAAAAAAow/X3xtDlkROnQ/s1600/ccox.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Catherine Cox, Director and <br />
Co-Founder of the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/"><span id="goog_727692015"></span>UCD Centre for <br />the History of Medicine in Ireland<span id="goog_727692016"></span></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Why do this MA?</h3>
<div>
Graduates have secured employment in the fields of media, education, politics and in private and public sector management and policy.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Graduates have also proceeded to PhD studies at Irish, British, and European institutions, securing prestigious external funding.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Funding</h3>
<div>
To apply for the acclaimed <a href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Humanities-and-social-science/Funding-schemes/Masters-awards/index.htm">Wellcome Trust Masters Scholarship</a>, please contact MA Director, <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/historyarchives/staff/catherinecox/home/">Dr Catherine Cox</a>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Further Details</h3>
<div>
Please see the course description for the <a href="https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=Z240" target="_blank">MA in the History of Welfare & Medicine in Society</a> at UCD Graduates Studies<br />
<br /></div>
<h3>
</h3>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.chomipod.com/documents/2016-ma/">Download the MA poster</a></div>
UCD CHOMIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05127226241903753693noreply@blogger.com0John Henry Newman Building, Newman Building, University College Dublin, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland53.3059437 -6.222172199999931853.3047512 -6.2247041999999322 53.3071362 -6.2196401999999313tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3997479995851237814.post-79141057455224559692016-02-22T11:27:00.000+00:002016-02-22T11:27:02.073+00:00Parochial Officers of Health in pre-Famine Dublin by Ciarán McCabe<i>In this month's blog <a href="http://iaph.ie/members/ciaran_mccabe/">Dr Ciaran McCabe</a>, an Irish Research Council funded postdoctoral fellow (NUI Galway), considers the oft-neglected figure of the parochial health officer and his role in the prevention of contagion and fighting fever epidemics in early nineteenth-century Ireland. In 2011, Dr McCabe successfully completed a MA thesis at the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi/">Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a>, UCD, on the impact of the 1817-19 and 1826-27 fever epidemics on the <a href="http://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.ie/2015/05/Cork-Street-Fever-Hospital.html">Cork Street Fever Hospital</a>, Dublin. </i><br />
</br>
<h3>
Preventing the Danger of Contagion and Other Evils</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-IxMDTvS9zvk/VsoqOPGqgaI/AAAAAAAAAnU/GRntgtHg6_A/s1600/Fever%2BAct%2B1819.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-IxMDTvS9zvk/VsoqOPGqgaI/AAAAAAAAAnU/GRntgtHg6_A/s320/Fever%2BAct%2B1819.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Fever Act of 1819 empowered parish </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span lang="EN-GB">vestries to elect unpaid officers of health<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
From the middle of the seventeenth century, civil parish vestries in Ireland carried out functions which we would today associate with local government services: fire-fighting, tree planting, public lighting, and the repair of roads. Parishes also undertook to provide some assistance to local parishioners in distress and this relief included the support of local 'foundlings', the purchase of coffins for local paupers, payments of cash to widows and the maintenance of an alms-house, typically inhabited by local widows. Parish vestries were of such importance as units of local government that it was upon them that powers were bestowed for the prevention of contagion in response to the <a href="http://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.ie/2015/03/the-historical-development-of-irish.html#epidemics">1817-19 fever epidemic</a>. The 1819 Fever Act empowered parish vestries to elect unpaid officers of health, who had the authority to direct that tenements, lanes and streets be cleaned, and that nuisances be removed from the streets. These officers also had the power to apprehend and dismiss from the parish 'all idle poor Persons, Men, Women, or Children, and all Persons who may be found begging or seeking Relief' in the interest of 'preventing the Danger of Contagion and other Evils'.<a href="#1" name="top1"><sup>1</sup></a><br />
<br />
<h3>
Officers of Health: Respectable Parishioners</h3>
</br>
The positions of officers of health were filled by respectable parishioners, who also typically served as churchwardens, <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27699332?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">sidesmen</a> and overseers. To these men (and they were invariably men), such voluntary service gave them an opportunity to display their civil responsibilities, as well as asserting their prominence within the community. <a href="http://www.britac.ac.uk/fellowship/elections/index.cfm?member=5939">Toby Barnard</a> has argued that 'as in England, so in Protestant Ireland, a willingness regularly to assume the burdens of parochial office may have helped the middling sort to define and so distinguish themselves from the lower ranks'.<a href="#2" name="top2"><sup>2</sup></a> Among the officers of health in <a href="http://www.historyireland.com/uncategorized/surveys-dublin-ii-anatomy-st-michans-1845/">St Michan's</a> parish in the 1830s were Mark Flower of Old Church Street and merchant William Hill of 47 Pill Lane, who also served together as sidesmen and overseers of licenced houses.<a href="#3" name="top3"><sup>3</sup></a> In some instances, parishioners who were qualified medical practitioners were elected to serve as officers of health, such as David Brereton MD in St Michan's in 1831.<a href="#4" name="top4"><sup>4</sup></a> In St Thomas's parish in 1828, four of the ten elected officers of health were medical practitioners.<a href="#5" name="top5"><sup>5</sup></a><br />
<br />
<h3>
The Fever Act (1819)</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-SRUkYV-QU7k/VsospAgDDqI/AAAAAAAAAns/CcaRk-XFWpc/s1600/werburgh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-SRUkYV-QU7k/VsospAgDDqI/AAAAAAAAAns/CcaRk-XFWpc/s200/werburgh.jpg" width="128" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A notice issued by the officers of <br />health in St Werburgh parish, <br />November 1831</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The Fever Act was passed in June 1819, by which point the nationwide fever epidemic had petered out. With the emergency over, parishes were slow to fill the positions of officers of health, which, while not encompassing any salary, required the levying of a parish cess to cover expenses. Shortly after the legislation was passed, the Head of Police wrote to each of the Dublin parishes, reminding them of of their duties to elect officers under the new Fever Act.<a href="#6" name="top6"><sup>6</sup></a> In St Catherine's the first officers of health were appointed two months after the legislation was passed while it took nine months for the first officers to be appointed in <a href="http://ireland.anglican.org/news/3313">St Werburgh's</a> parish.<a href="#7" name="top7"><sup>7</sup></a> Such delays could be criticised, yet on the other hand, given that the worst of the epidemic had passed, parishes were understandably reluctant to assume additional expenditure on unnecessary undertakings.<br />
<br />
<h3>
<br /></h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Cholera Epidemic</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-tX4vE7drlxU/Vsorrl0amhI/AAAAAAAAAng/Q7SAiYmOFnU/s1600/cholera1831.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-tX4vE7drlxU/Vsorrl0amhI/AAAAAAAAAng/Q7SAiYmOFnU/s320/cholera1831.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<i><span lang="EN-GB">Freeman’s
Journal</span></i><span lang="EN-GB">, 17 November 1831. </span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">The parish vestry </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span lang="EN-GB">of St
Anne’s in Dublin city appointed officers of health in </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span lang="EN-GB">late-1831, following
reports that cholera had </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12.8px;">r</span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">eached</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> England and was believed likely to spread to
Ireland</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
For the first decade after the enactment of the 1819 fever legislation, many parishes avoided filling these positions. Parish expenditure had to be raised through the taxation of local parishioners, who, in some cases in Dublin city, paid up to sixteen different taxes to various local authorities.<a href="#8" name="top8"><sup>8</sup></a> The significance of the 1819 Fever Act, empowering parish vestries to spearhead the local responses to epidemic disease, was not realised until more than a decade after its enactment, when <a href="http://historyofmedicineinireland.blogspot.ie/2013/09/cholera-in-belfast-1832-and-184849-by.html">cholera</a> made its first appearance in western Europe. In late-1831, when reports reached Ireland that cholera had been identified in England, parish vestries throughout the country held emergency meetings, drawing on their powers under the 1819 act and rapidly appointing officers of health as a measure to prevent – albeit unsuccessfully – the introduction and propagation of cholera.<br />
<br />
<h3>
To Guard Against Contagion</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
In St Andrew's parish in December 1831, a cess was levied on parishioners to enable the work of the officers of health by means of 'cleansing & whitewashing the dwellings of the poor in order to guard against contagion'.<a href="#9" name="top9"><sup>9</sup></a> Two weeks earlier in St Catherine's parish, the sum of £50 was levied on parishioners following reports 'that a pestilential has raged in several parts of Europe form sometime under the name of Cholera Morbus, which it is feared may shortly extend its ravages to this Kingdom'.<a href="#10" name="top10"><sup>10</sup></a> Cholera eventually reached Ireland in the spring of 1832 and throughout the epidemic, parochial officers of health carried out measures to mitigate the impact of the contagion. A question which remains unanswered is how the parochial officers of health interacted with other authorities, such as the state-run Board of Health. The rejection in October 1832 by officers of St James's parish of the Board of Health's right to interfere in parochial matters suggests the existence of inherent tensions between these parties, yet the extent to which this single instance is representative of a wider trend is as of yet unclear.<a href="#11" name="top11"><sup>11</sup></a><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L3sOJ1vsBBU/VsouHeVgmnI/AAAAAAAAAn4/b00edavsVnk/s1600/cholerasunderland.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L3sOJ1vsBBU/VsouHeVgmnI/AAAAAAAAAn4/b00edavsVnk/s400/cholerasunderland.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span lang="EN-GB">A dead cholera victim in Sunderland,
1832. Following the outbreak of cholera in north-east </br>England, Irish parish
vestries rushed to appoint officers of health. Wellcome Images</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
<h3>
The Decline of the Parochial Officer of Health</h3>
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Some parishes continued to appoint officers of health throughout the 1830s but the practice declined by the 1840s; yet there are some instances of officers being appointed by parishes in Ulster into the 1850s.<a href="#12" name="top12"><sup>12</sup></a> The power of parish vestries to appoint officers of health was repealed by the 1866 Sanitary Act,<a href="#13" name="top13"><sup>13</sup></a> which extended earlier legislation for England to Ireland and was passed at the height of yet another cholera epidemic. Responsibility for sanitary regulations was transferred to a new Public Health Committee, which operated under the auspices of Dublin Corporation.<a href="#14" name="top14"><sup>14</sup></a> As well as reflecting wider developments in public health reform in this period, the decline of the parochial officer of health was also a symptom of the gradual removal of civil functions from Irish parish vestries. Although constituting relatively short-lived positions with limited powers, and whose efficacy in mitigating the impact of contagion is difficult to gauge, parochial officers of health remain an interesting and neglected part of the social and medical landscape of nineteenth-century Ireland.<br />
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<h3>
Dr Ciarán McCabe</h3>
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<i><a href="http://iaph.ie/members/ciaran_mccabe/">Dr Ciarán McCabe</a> is an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.nuigalway.ie/mooreinstitute/">Moore Institute</a>, NUI Galway. In 2015 he was awarded a PhD by Maynooth University for his thesis which examined begging and alms-giving in pre-Famine Ireland. He is currently writing a monograph arising from his doctoral research. Dr McCabe holds a <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/graduatestudies/coursefinder/taughtprogrammes/ma-in-the-social-and-cultural-history-of-medicine/">Masters in the Social and Cultural History of Medicine</a> from the <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/history/chomi/">Centre for the History of Medicine in Ireland</a> (CHOMI), UCD and also serves as compiler for <a href="http://www.iho.ie/i">Irish History Online</a>.</i><br />
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<a name="1"><b>1 </b></a>An act to establish Regulations for preventing Contagious Diseases in Ireland', 59 Geo. III, c. 41 (14 June 1819).<a href="#top1"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="2"><b>2 </b></a>Toby Barnard, <i>A New Anatomy of Ireland: The Irish Protestants, 1649-1770</i> (New Haven and London), 2003), p. 242.<a href="#top2"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="3"><b>3 </b></a>St Michan's parish, Dublin, vestry minute book, 7 April 1828 (Representative Church Body Library (RCBL), St Michan's parish, Dublin, vestry minute books, P 276.05.5; <i>ibid.</i>, 23 December 1828; <i>ibid.</i>, 9 April 1832; 20 April 1835. Hill also served as churchwarden: <i>ibid.</i>, 4 April 1836.<a href="#top3"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="4"><b>4 </b></a>St Michan's parish, Dublin, vestry minute book, 23 November 1831.<a href="#top4"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="5"><b>5 </b></a>St Thomas parish, Dublin, vestry minute book, 7 April 1828 (RCBL, St Thomas's parish, Dublin, vestry minute books, P 80.5.2).<a href="#top5"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="6"><b>6 </b></a><i>Saunder's Newsletter</i>, 19 August 1819.<a href="#top6"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="7"><b>7 </b></a>St Catherine's parish, Dublin, vestry minutes, 24 August 1819 (RCBL, St Catherine's parish, Dublin, vestry minute books, P 117.05.7); St Werburgh's parish, Dublin, vestry minutes, 25 March 1820 (RCBL, St Werburgh's parish, Dublin, vestry minute books, P 326.05.2).<a href="#top7"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="8"><b>8 </b></a>Jacinta Prunty, <i>Dublin Slums, 1800-1925: A Study in Urban Geography</i> (Dublin, 1998), p. 67.<a href="#top8"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="9"><b>9 </b></a>St Andrew's parish, Dublin, vestry minutes, 12 December 1831 (RCBL, St Andrew's parish, Dublin vestry minute books, P 059.05.2).<a href="#top9"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="10"><b>10 </b></a>St Catherine's parish, Dublin, vestry minutes, 28 November 1831.<a href="#top10"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="11"><b>11 </b></a><i>The Pilot</i>, 12 October 1832.<a href="#top11"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="12"><b>12 </b></a><i>Belfast Newsletter</i>, 28 August 1851, 14 April 1852, 3 May 1854.<a href="#top12"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="13"><b>13 </b></a>'An act to amend the Law relating to Public Health', 29 & 30 Vict., c. 90, s. 69 (7 August 1866).<a href="#top13"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a name="14"><b>14 </b></a>Prunty, <i>Dublin Slums</i>, pp 70-71.<a href="#top14"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
</span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0Dublin, Ireland53.3498053 -6.260309699999993453.0446728 -6.9085031999999931 53.6549378 -5.6121161999999938